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LIBRARY 

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Departed  Gods. 


THE  GODS  OF  OUR  FATHERS. 


BY 


REV.  J.  Nl  FRADENBURGH.  Ph.  D.,  D.  D., 

PRESIDEN-f'OF  THK  NORTH  DAKOTA  UNIVERSITY. 


CINCINNATI:    CRANSTON  &  STOWE. 

NEW  YORK:   HUNT  &  EATON. 

1891. 


Copyright 

By  CRANSTON  &  STOWE, 
1891. 


do  my  -Sons, 

pDBLBB^ip  G^ANW  AND  G^NBST  ffllNO^, 

IN 

Recognition  of  their  Purest  Filial  Devotion,  Stainless  Characters, 

AND 

Ripening  Scholarship, 
3t  HUMcate  tl)t»  lUilniiu-. 

The  Author. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/departedgodsgodsOOfradiala 


PREFACE. 

1"MIE  present  work  is  a  concluding  volume  of 
a  series  in  which  are  treated  in  a  popular  way, 
and  yet  with  a  fair  degree  of  thoroughness,  the 
great  religions  of  the  world,  both  living  and  ex- 
tinct. "Living  Religions"  possesses  peculiar 
interest  in  that  it  discusses  the  faiths  of  the 
present  heathen  world  in  fields  now  mapped  out 
and  occupied  for  Christian  missionary  conquest. 
"Fire  from  Strange  Altars"  is  not  less  im- 
portant in  that  it  attempts  to  place  in  systematic 
array  many  of  the  ascertained  facts  concerning 
the  archaic  literatures  and  old  cults  of  Israel's 
neighbors,  from  the  earliest  period  which  history 
has  reached  to  that  when  these  mighty  empires, 
which  shook  the  world  while  it  was  yet  but 
young,  dropped  in  pieces  with  the  advent  of 
more  advanced  political  and  religious  ideas, 
more  efficient  engines  of  war,  and  wiser  military 
organizations  and  plans  for  defense  or  conquest. 
The  present  volume,  it  is  believed,  will  command 
an  equally  generous  welcome,  both  because  of  its 
connection    with  the    classic  nations,   and  much 


4  PREFACE. 

more  because  it  treats  of  the  religions  of  our  own 
fathers  before  the  light  of  Christianity  shot  its 
mild  and  beneficent  rays  into  the  world's  first 
gloom. 

The  student  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics 
has  had  his  attention  too  frequently  confined  to 
dry  details  concerning  the  genealogies  of  the 
gods  or  the  myths  which  relate  their  adventures 
and  exploits — presenting  the  moral  character  of 
the  divinities  in  a  light  in  which  little,  to  say 
the  least,  can  be  found  for  unqualified  commen- 
dation ;  while  the  Germanic  and  Celtic  nations 
have  failed  to  receive  any  adequate  hearing. 
"While  the  author  in  this  work  does  not  neglect 
mythology,  he  endeavors  to  awaken  a  more  lively 
interest  in  the  religions  of  the  peoples  with 
whom  he  has  to  do.  Such  a  work  can  not  but 
give  new  interest  to  the  studies  of  the  classic 
student,  while  the  general  reader  will  be  in- 
structed and  edified  in  its  perusal.  The  Chris- 
tian scholar  also  will  not  fail  to  appreciate  its 
value.  It  will  increase  his  reverence  for  his 
fathers,  who  walked  by  this  uncertain  but  only 
light,  while  he  will  more  and  more  rejoice  that 
all  other  religious  lights  of  the  world  have  been 
eclipsed  by  the  true  and  glorious  light  of  the 
Sun  of  Righteousness. 

July,  1891. 


GO^lTEHTS. 

I. 

THE  RELIGION  OF  GREECE. 

Page. 

1.  Great  Zeus 11 

II.  Gods  and  Half-gods 28 

III.  Nymphs  and  Monsters,  Priests  and  Oracles     77 

II. 

THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS. 
The  Religion  of  the  Etruscans 115 

III. 

THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  ROMANS. 

I.  The  Great  Gods 143 

II.  Priests  and  Festivals 163 

III.  The  Morality  ok  Stoicism 183 

IV. 

THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  DRUIDS. 

1.  The  Chief  of  the  Gods  and  the  Culture 

Hero 215 

II    The  Sun-god 257 

III.  The  Classics  and  the  Inscriptions 290 

IV.  Little  People 325 

5 


6  CONTENTS. 

V. 

THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  NOFLSE. 

Page 

I.  The  Mists  of  the  World's  Morning 339 

II.  The  Warrior  and  the  Thunderer 364 

III.  Gods  and  No-gods 391 

IV.  The  Doom  of  the  Universe 422 


List  of  Illustrations 


Paoe. 

Statue  of  Zeus  Olympios, 21 

Mount  Olympds, 26 

Bronze  Statue  of  Apollo,           ....  35 

Statue  of  Pallas  Athene,      .         .         .         .  41 

Pallas  Athene,             43 

Abduction  of  Cassandra  from  the  Temple  of 

Pallas, 45 

The  Parthenon, 47 

Ares, 54 

Artemis  of  the  Ephesians,          ....  58 

Temple  of  Artemis,  at  Ephesus,     ...  59 

Festival  in  Honor  of  Demeter,           ...  63 

Heracles  Slating  the  Lern^ean  Hydra,       .  90 
Theseus  and  the  Minotaur,         .         .         .         .93 

Foot-race,  Olympian  Festival,      .        .        .  94 

The  Homeric  Zeus, 98 

The  Choice  of  Heracles,        ....  107 

The  Pantheon,  or  Temple  of  all  the  Gods,      .  148 

.1  fitter, 150 

'I  r.MTLE  of  Vesta, 156 

Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Saturn  at  Rome,     .  157 

Janus, 165 

7 


S  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page 

Statue  of  a  Vestal  Virgin,    .        .         .         .  171 
Roman  Priest  and  Priestess,        .         .        .         .175 

Stonehenge  (Restored),           ....  235 

Druidical  Stones,  Carnac,  Brittany,         .         .  247 

Fairies,     .                          326 

Odin  Welcomes  a  Hero  to  Valhal,   .         .         .  365 

Frey,  or  Frigg, 370 

Scandinavian  Runes, 374 

Thor, 377 

Thor's  Dwelling  in  Asgard,        ....  379 

Tyr,  Son  of  Odin  and  Frigg,    ....  398 

Heathen  Temple  near  Strasburg,  Germany,     .  403 


I. 


®I)B  Keligtmt  of  ®rm*. 


I. 

GREAT    ZEUS. 

THE  Pelasgians  worshiped  the  Supreme  God, 
nameless,  and  without  temple  or  image^  on 
high  mountain-tops,  the  natural  altars  erected 
and  consecrated  by  the  power  and  presence  of 
God.  Zeus  may  have  meant  at  one  time  merely 
the  heavens,  the  luminiferous  abode  of  the  in- 
visible God.  In  the  midst  of  the  idolatrous  and 
polytheistic  worship  of  later  times,  the  God  not 
made  with  hands  or  apprehended  by  the  phys- 
ical senses,  still  dwelt  on  the  tops  of  the  sacred 
mountains,  in  the  brightness  of  his  glory,  form- 
less and  unapproachable.  There  was  a  pious 
dread  of  naming  or  representing  the  Divine 
Being;  hence  there  were  altars  to  the  Unknown, 
the  Great,  the  Pure,  and  the  Merciful.  This 
early  Pelasgian  god  demanded  the  sacrifice  of 
human  victims,  and  the  Greek  religion  was  not 
emancipated  from  these  bloody  rites  till  after  the 
lapse  of  many  centuries. 

Greek  literature  bears  traces  of  a  pre-classical 
stage  in  theology.  The  three  gods  who* shared 
among  themselves  the  dominion  of  the  world — 
the    earth,    the    sea,    and    the    realm    of    the 

shades — may  have  been  originally  the  same  god. 

11 


12  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Persephone,  the  wife  of  Hades,  according  to  an 
Orphic  myth,  was  united  with  Father  Zeus  in 
the  form  of  a  snake.  In  the  Pontic  cult  there 
is  little  or  no  distinction  between  the  Chthonian 
Zeus  and  the  supreme  Zeus.  Plato  also  makes 
Pluto,  the  god  of  wealth,  closely  resemble  Zeus 
abounding  in  riches.  The  god  is  still  more 
closely  connected  with  the  sea.  He  gives  the 
fair  winds,  so  welcome  to  mariners,  and  his  tem- 
ples are  frequently  built  on  headlands  overlook- 
ing the  sea.  He  also  protects  the  landings  of 
voyagers.  Poseidon  occasionally  bears  the  des- 
ignation of  Zeus  Enalios,  or  "Zeus  of  the  Sea." 
The  Pelasgic  Zeus  was  differentiated,  and  there 
resulted  three  brothers — Zeus,  Poseidon,  and 
Hades. 

Some  of  his  sons  may  also  have  been  devel- 
oped out  of  his  character.  He  bore  epithets  by 
which  he  was  distinguished  as  the  god  of  war — 
the  strong  one,  the  helper  in  the  conflict,  and 
the  giver  of  triumph.  The  Zeus  of  the  Carians 
was  represented  equipped  with  a  battle-ax,  and 
clad  in  the  complete  armor  of  a  soldier.  Ares, 
the  god  of  war,  was  a  later  development. 

This  Zeus  became  the  chief  of  the  Olympic 
gods,  the  father  of  gods,  and  the  god  of  gods. 

Paul  quotes  from  a  Greek  poet,  "  We  are  his 
offspring."    (Acts  xvii,  28.)     This  clause  is  from 


GREAT  ZEUS.  18 

a  hymn  of  Clean thes,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  who 
was  born  at  Assos  in  the  Troad,  about  B.  C.  264. 
This  may  well  be  characterized  as  one  of  the 
purest  conceptions  of  God  to  be  found  in  all 
heathendom.  It  does  not  descend  to  the  low 
pantheism  which,  more  than  anything  else,  disfig- 
ures the  Stoic  system.  We  present  a  translation 
of  the  hymn : 

"0  thou,  who,  under  several  names,  art 
adored,  but  whose  power  is  entire  and  infinite! 
0  Zeus,  first  of  immortals,  sovereign  of  nature, 
governor  of  all,  and  supreme  legislator  of  all 
things,  accept  my  suppliant  prayer ;  for  to  man 
is  given  the  right  to  invoke  thee!  Whatever 
lives  and  moves  on  this  earth  drew  its  being 
from  thee;  we  are  a  faint  similitude  of  thy 
divinity. 

"I  will  address,  then,  my  prayers  to  thee, 
and  never  will  I  cease  to  praise  thy  wondrous 
power.  That  universe,  suspended  over  our 
heads,  and  which  seems  to  roll  around  the  earth, 
obeys  thee;  it  moves  along,  and  silently  sub- 
mits to  thy  mandate.  The  thunder,  minister  of 
thy  laws,  rests  under  thy  invincible  hands ; 
flaming,  gifted  with  an  immortal  life,  it  strikes, 
and  all  nature  is  terrified.  Thou  directest  the 
universal  spirit  which  animates  all  things,  and 
lives  in  all  beings. 


14  DEPARTED  GODS. 

"Such,  0  almighty  king,  is  thy  unbounded 
sway !  In  heaven,  on  earth,  or  in  the  floods 
below,  there  is  nought  performed  or  produced 
without  thee,  except  the  evil  which  springs 
from  the  heart  of  the  wicked.  By  thee,  con- 
fusion is  changed  into  order ;  by  thee,  the  war- 
ring elements  are  united.  By  a  happy  agree- 
ment, thou  so  blendest  good  with  evil  as  to 
produce  a  general  and  eternal  harmony  of  the 
world.  Wretched  being,  who  seeks  after  good, 
and  yet  perceives  not  the  universal  law  which 
points  out  the  way  to  render  him  at  once  good 
and  happy.  He  abandons  the  pursuit  of  virtue 
and  justice,  and  roves  where  each  passion  moves 
him.  Sordid  wealth,  fame,  and  sensual  pleas- 
ures become,  by  turns,  the  objects  of  his 
pursuit. 

"  0  God,  from  whom  all  gifts  descend,  who  sit- 
test  in  thick  darkness,  thunder-ruling  Lord,  dispel 
this  ignorance  from  the  mind  of  man;  deign  to 
enlighten  his  soul ;  draw  it  to  that  eternal  rea- 
son which  serves  as  thy  guide  and  support  in 
the  government  of  the  world  ;  so  that,  honored 
with  a  portion  of  this  light,  we  may,  in  our 
turn,  be  able  to  honor  thee,  by  celebrating  thy 
great  works  unceasingly  in  a  hymn !  This  is 
the  proper  duty  of  man.  For,  surely,  nothing 
can  be  more  delightful  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 


GREAT  ZEUS.  15 

earth  or  the  skies,  than  to  celebrate  that  divine 
reason  which  presides  over  nature."* 

Aratus,  another  Greek  poet,  sings  in  similar 
strains,  assigning  to  Zeus  that  providential  care 
which  watches  over  all  the  creatures  of  God,  and 
calling  upon  all  men  to  worship  him  who  is  their 
great  and  faithful  friend. 

There  is  also  an  Orphic  hymn  of  great  beauty, 
in  which  Zeus  is  praised  in  loftiest  terms.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  quoted  by  Plato,  and,  if  so, 
must  be  ancient.  The  pantheistic  flavor  of  the 
hymn  may  mar,  but  can  not  conceal,  its  real 
beauty  .f 

When  we  are  studying  the  lives  of  the  phi- 
losophers, we  are  all  the  while  conscious  that  we 
are  learning  but  little  concerning  the  religion  of 
the  common  people.  We  may,  however,  well 
believe  that  some  of  the  simple  pious  among 
the  people,  so  far  as  the  subject  came  within  the 
range  of  their  intellectual  and  spiritual  vision, 
recognized  God  in  his  true  character,  by  what- 
ever name  he  might  be  called,  and  extended  to 
him  proper  reverence  and  worship.  The  comic 
writers  and  satirists  must  be  read,  yet  with  dis- 
crimination. Glimpses  of  the  worship  of  the 
lower  classes  are  afforded  in  incidental  and  some- 


*Cory,  Ancient  Fragments,  pp.  192,  193. 

tRule,  Oriental  Records,  Monumental,  pp.  209-211. 


16  DEPARTED  GODS. 

times  undesigned  utterances  and  allusions,  which 
elsewhere  have  been  denied.  Indeed,  no  portion 
of  classical  literature  should  be  neglected,  if  we 
would  understand  our  subject.  We  must  not  be 
startled  if  we  find  that  quite  frequently  magic, 
and  other  superstitions,  had  more  influence  to 
captivate  and  sway  the  common  mind  than  all 
the  great  gods  and  goddesses. 

The  poets  and  tragic  writers  have  furnished 
us  with  many  noble  expressions  concerning  God. 
"No  one  is  free  but  Zeus,"  says  iEschylus. 
And  again  :  "  He  fills  the  world,  and  is  above 
it."  He  is  called  by  Terpander  "the  beginning 
of  all  things,  and  the  conductor  of  all."  Pindar 
says  that  "God  governeth  all  things  according 
to  his  will;"  and  again:  "Zeus  obtained  some- 
thing more  than  what  the  gods  possessed." 
Xenophanes  gives  utterance  to  the  noble  thought : 
"There  is  but  one  God,  greatest  among  men  and 
gods,  and  not  like  mortals  in  form  or  mind." 
Hesiod  speaks  of  "the  eye  of  Zeus,  which  sees 
all  and  knows  all."  In  Homer,  Zeus  is  called 
"  the  father,  the  most  glorious,  the  greatest,  who 
rules  over  all — mortals  and  immortals."  Soph- 
ocles has  a  pure  ideal,  when  he  says :  "  Courage, 
courage,  my  child !  There  is  still  in  heaven  the 
great  Zeus,  who  watches  over  all  things  and 
rules.     Commit  thy  exceeding  bitter  grief  to  him, 


GREAT  ZEUS.  17 

and  be  not  too  angry  against  thy  enemies,  nor 
forget  them." 

There  is  an  approximation  to  the  Golden 
Rule  in  Isocrates :  "  Do  not  to  others  what  you 
would  not  suffer  from  them,  and  be  towards 
others  what  you  would  wish  I  should  be  towards 
you."  Hesychius  makes  an  ancient  hero,  Bonzy- 
ges,  say  more  clearly :  "  Do  to  others  what  you 
would  should  be  done  to  you."  There  is  no  one 
good  but  God — all  men  are  sinners.  God  looks 
favorably  on  the  pious,  and  cherishes  them  in  life 
and  after  death.  He  delighteth  more  in  a  pure 
heart  than  in  all  sacrifices.  Says  Menander: 
"Finish  your  sacrifice  to  God  with  faith,  being 
just  and  adorned  with  purity  of  soul  as  with  a 
brilliant  garment.  If  you  hear  the  thunder,  do 
not  fly,  since  your  conscience  makes  you  no  re- 
proach; for  God  seeth  you,  and  holdeth  himself 
near  you."  "Good  thoughts  are  the  greatest 
gift  of  God,"  says  iEschylus.  "  Worship  is  due 
the  gods,"  says  Aristotle,  "because  they  are 
the  source  of  the  greatest  benefits  we  have  re- 
ceived, and  we  owe  them  intelligence  as  well  as 
life." 

We  present  from  the  tragic  writers  a  few  more 
sentences : 

"Look  thou  on  him  who  looks  on  all  from  heaven, 
Guardian  of  suffering  men, 


18  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Who,  worn  with  toil,  unto  their  neighbors  come 
As  suppliants,  and  receive  not  justice  due. 
Zeus,  the  true  suppliant's  god, 
Abides,  by  wail  of  sufferer,  unappeased." 

"For  not  a  subject  hastening  at  the  beck 
Of  strength  above  his  own, 
Reigns  he  subordinate  to  mightier  powers ; 
Nor  does  he  pay  this  homage  from  below, 
While  one  sits  throned  in  majesty  above. 
Act  is  for  him  as  speech, 
To  hasten  what  his  teeming  mind  resolves." 

"Zeus,  who  leadeth  man  in  wisdom's  way, 
And  fixeth  fast  the  law, 
Wisdom  by  pain  to  gain." 

"O  Zeus,  whate'er  he  be, 
If  that  name  please  him  well, 
By  that  on  him  I  call ! 
Weighing  all  other  names,  I  fail  to  guess 
Aught  else  but  Zeus,  if  I  would  cast  aside 
Clearly  in  every  deed, 
From  off  my  soul,  this  weight  of  care."* 

Socrates  taught  that  "  there  is  a  Being  whose 
eye  pierces  throughout  all  nature,  and  whose  ear 
is  open  to  every  sound ;  extending  through  all 
time,  extending  to  all  places ;  and  whose  bounty 
and  care  can  know  no  other  bounds  than  those 
fixed  by  his  own  creation."  f 

*Muller,  Science  of  Language,  Second  Series,  pp.  460,  461; 
Brace,  The  Unknown  God,  pp.  90-101. 
tXenophon,  Memorabilia  i,  4. 


ORE  AT  ZEUS.  19 

Zeus  is  the  lord  of  the  upper  regions,  dwell- 
ing especially  on  the  summits  of  the  most  lofty 
mountains,  where  he  gathers  about  him  the  dark 
storm-clouds,  shakes  the  world  with  his  thunder, 
and  hurls  the  fiery  bolts  in  his  wrath.  The  Olym- 
pian deities  form  with  Zeus  a  family,  over  which 
he  presides  in  patriarchal  dignity.  They  are 
unable  to  stay  the  tide  of  his  power,  to  thwart 
his  will,  or  to  ruffle  the  deep  serenity  of  his  soul. 
His  tremendous  nod  confirms  decrees  which  no 
power  can  frustrate.  He  has  established  the 
eternal  order  of  events,  and  himself  submits  the 
Fates  of  his  own  appointment.  The  destinies  of 
nations  and  of  men  are  in  his  hands.  He  sets 
kings  upon  their  thrones,  and  he  sanctions  human 
laws.  He  watches  over  social  rights,  secures  the 
fulfillment  of  contracts,  and  holds  all  men  to  the 
observance  of  their  oaths.  He.  sees  the  guilty 
and  the  unjust,  and  attends  to  the  punishment  of 
all  wickedness.  He  is  mild  and  merciful,  but 
has  no  respect  for  the  treacherous,  the  .arrogant, 
and  the  cruel.  He  is  interested  in  the  delibera- 
tions of  assemblies.  He  is  the  god  of  hospital- 
ity, and  regards  the  stranger  and  the  poor.  He 
presides  over  property,  and  watches  over  fences 
and  landmarks.  All  suppliants  are  under  his 
peculiar  protection,  and  all  dwellings  are  in  his 
keeping.     He  sends  wealth  or  poverty,  health  or 


20  DEPARTED  GODS. 

sickness,  hunger  or  plenty.  He  is  the  father  of 
music  and  song.  He  is  all-seeing,  all-knowing, 
all-wise,  all-sufficing,  all-causing,  and  all-accom- 
plishing. He  is  the  god  of  armies,  and  maintains 
liberty  among  men. 

There  is  another  side  to  the  character  of  Zeus 
which  must  have  been  due  to  mythology  and  the 
poets.  He  is  subject  to  passion  and  frailty ;  he 
feels  pleasure  and  pain;  he  is  refreshed  with  am- 
brosial food;  he  inhales  the  savor  of  sacrifices. 
Zeus  met  with  many  adventures  in  his  loves. 
He  was  often  moved  by  anger,  jealousy,  and 
hatred.  There  were  factions  in  his  court,  and 
conspiracies  against  his  government.  He  some- 
times quarrels,  is  not  always  steadfast  in  pur- 
pose, is  controlled  by  desire,  and  harbors  resent- 
ment. He  storms  at  other  gods,  and  resorts  to 
unseemly  violence. 

The  popular  god  was  doubtless  this  Zeus, 
with  all  his  very  serious  imperfections.  He  is 
subject  to  all  the  infirmities  of  the  flesh.  He  is 
not  eternal ;  his  life  had  a  beginning,  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  belief  of  some,  will  have  an  end. 
Sometimes  he  seems  to  possess  little  power,  and 
other  gods  can  beard  him  with  a  measure  of  suc- 
cess. He  is  not  faultless  in  his  moral  character 
in  any  of  the  relations  of  life.  He  dethroned 
his  father,  proved  unfaithful  to  his  wife  on  re- 


STATUE  OF  ZEUS  OLTMPIOS 
(By  PfcddJ 


22  DEPARTED  GODS. 

peated  occasions,  and  abused  his  own  children. 
Together  with  many  noble  traits  of  character 
were  combined  great  weakness  and  monstrous 
wickedness.  The  science  of  mythology  explains, 
to  be  sure,  the  origin  of  many  of  these  inconsis- 
tencies ;  but  these  explanations  do  not  change 
the  character  of  the  Zeus  in  whom  the  general 
popular  heart  believed. 

Zeus  did  not  become  the  chief  of  the  gods 
without  a  struggle.  According  to  the  oldest 
writers  on  the  origin  of  things,  Uranos  and  Gsea, 
or  Heaven  and  Earth,  gave  birth  to  the  Titans, 
of  whom  Cronos  was  the  youngest.  Of  the  same 
parentage  were  also  the  Cyclopes;  and  also 
Cottos,  Briareos,  and  Gyes,  each  of  whom  had 
fifty  heads  and  a  hundred  arms.  Uranos  was 
displeased  when  he  saw  his  monstrous  offspring, 
and  thrust  them  back  again  into  the  bosom  of 
Gsea.  The  mother,  vexed  at  this  outrage  on  the 
part  of  her  royal  husband,  called  upon  her  sons 
to  avenge  her  wrongs.  Not  one  dared  to  raise 
his  arm  against  his  father,  except  Cronos.  Arm- 
ing himself  with  a  sickle,  or  curved  sword,  Cro- 
nos waylaid  and  wounded  his  father,  and  from 
the  drops  of  blood  which  fell  from  the  wounds 
sprang  the  Furies  and  the  Giants.  Cronos  now 
reigned  with  his  wife  Rhea,  who  was  also  his 
sister. 


ORE  AT  ZEUS.  23 

The  Cyclopes  became  dangerous  because  of 
their  enormous  strength.  Cronos  feared  that  if 
left  to  themselves  they  might  some  day  hurl  him 
from  his  throne.  He  determined,  while  he  was 
able,  to  guard  against  a  calamity  which  might 
soon  be  without  remedy.  He  imprisoned  the 
Cyclopes  beneath  the  earth,  where,  in  volcanic 
regions — especially  at  Mount  Etna,  and  on  the 
Lipara  Islands  and  Lemnos — they  assist  Hephaes- 
tos  at  his  forge.  Their  names — Bronte,  Sterope, 
and  Arges — speak  of  the  flashes  of  the  flame  and 
the  mutterings  of  the  voices  of  volcanic  erup- 
tions. 

Now,  Uranos  and  Gsea  had  informed  Cronos 
of  another  danger.  They  foretold  to  him  that 
he  was  destined  to  be  dethroned  by  one  of  his 
own  children.  To  guard  against  this  new  danger, 
he  swallowed  all  of  his  children  ns  soon  as  they 
were  born — Hestia,  Demeter,  Hera,  Hades,  and 
Poseidon.  When  Zeus  was  born,  Rhea  gave  her 
lord  a  stone,  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes,  which 
he  swnllowed  instead  of  his  infant  son.  Now, 
Rhea  sent  Zeus  away  to  Crete,  where  he  was 
brought  up  and  educated. 

There  are  different  and  contradictory  tradi- 
tions concerning  these  early  matters.  Zeus  was 
placed  under  the  tuition  of  Nymphs,  and  even 
their   names    have    been    preserved.     They   are 


24  DEPARTED  GODS. 

characteristically  three  in  number :  Thisoa,  Neda, 
and  Hagno. 

On  a  mountain  called  Thaumasium  there  was, 
in  the  time  of  Pausanius,  a  cave  called  Rhea's 
Cave,  which  only  women  sacred  to  the  goddess 
may  enter.  Here  it  was  that  she  cheated  Cronos, 
giving  a  stone  to  swallow  in  the  stead  of  a  child. 
Tradition  points  to  Mount  Lycseus  as  the  place 
of  his  birth.* 

Zeus  gave  his  father  an  emetic,  by  means  of 
which  he  was  made  to  disgorge  the  children 
whom  he  had  swallowed. 

The  stone  which  he  had  swallowed  was  pre- 
served at  Delphi,  anointed  every  day,  and  at  fes- 
tivals crowned  with  wool.  Pausanius  says  that 
stone-worship  was  the  oldest  worship  among  the 
Greeks.  Almost  every  temple  had  its  sacred 
stone.  The  Argives  had  a  rude  stone  called 
Zeus  Cappotas.  The  oldest  idol  of  the  Thespians 
was  a  stone.  Another  stone  was  preserved  be- 
neath the  pedestal  of  Apollo  at  Delos.  In  the 
Achaean  Pharse  were  thirty  squared  stones,  each 
bearing  the  name  of  a  god. 

There  are  but  few  traces  of  the  worship  of 
Cronos.  He  had  a  temple  at  the  foot  of  the 
Acropolis  in  Athens,  and  sacrifices  were  offered 
to  him  annually  on  Olympus. 

*Pausauius,  Description  of  Greece,  viii,  36. 


GREAT  ZEDS.  25 

Zeus,  with  his  brothers,  rebelled  against  his 
father,  and,  after  ten  years,  was  victorious,  and 
thrust  him  into  Tartarus,  where  he  was  guarded 
by  the  hundred-handers.  Another  account  says 
that  he  went  to  the  Island  of  the  Blest,  where 
he  ruled  over  the  departed,  and,  in  connection 
with  Rhadamanthus,  judged  the  shades.  Plu- 
tarch places  him  on  an  island  in  the  northern 
seas,  where  he  is  guarded  by  the  hundred-h.'inded 
Briareus.  Whatever  may  have  been  his  destiny, 
he  received,  as  we  have  seen,  but  small  consid- 
eration from  the  religions  of  the  Greeks. 

Zeus,  in  this  great  war  against  his  father, 
had  let  loose  the  Cyclopes,  and  they  furnished 
him  with  thunder-bolts. 

Some  of  the  philosophers  have  little  respect 
for  Hesiod  and  Homer,  who  have  preserved  for 
us  so  many  stories  of  the  crimes  of  the  gods. 
When  Pythagoras  descended  to  the  shades,  "he 
saw  the  soul  of  Hesiod  bound  to  a  brazen  pillar, 
and  gnashing  its  teeth,  and  that  of  Homer  sus- 
pended from  a  tree,  and  snakes  around  it  as  a 
punishment  for  the  things  that  they  had  said  of 
the  gods."* 

Legends  concerning  conflicts  with  primitive 
giants,  sometimes  monsters  in  form,  and  always 
of  superhuman  strength,  are  abundant  in  the 
*  Diogenes  Laertius,  Lives  of  Philosophers,  p.  347. 


26  DEPARTED  GODS. 

early  myths  of  most  of  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
Possibly  there  may,  in  certain  cases,  be  a  refer- 
ence to  primordial  races;  but  doubtless  the  mean- 
ing of  these  legends  is  largely  exhausted  when 
we  connect  them  with  the  ever-recurring  strug- 


MOUNT  OLYMPUS. 

gle  between  the  bright  and  the  dark  powers  of 
nature  and  the  later  geologic  preparation  of  the 
world  for  its  present  inhabitants. 

Speaking  of  the  war  of  the  gods  against  the 
Titans,  Lenormant  says :  "  The  localization  and 
the  epic  form  with  which  Hesiod  has  clothed  this 
narrative  were   influenced  by  the  tradition  of  a 


GREAT  ZEUS.  27 

great  convulsion  of  the  terrestrial  crust,  occa- 
sioned by  the  breaking  forth  of  subterranean 
fires,  the  scene  of  action  being  the  Grecian  coun- 
tries, and  the  witnesses  the  men  already  inhabit- 
ing them, — doubtless  that  convulsion  known  to 
geologists  as  the  upheaval  of  Tenarus,  the  last 
of  the  Plutonian  crises  which  overwhelmed  the 
ancient  world,  the  effect  of  which  was  felt  from 
the  center  of  France  to  the  coasts  of  Syria.  .  .  . 
The  men  who  witnessed  this  frightful  convulsion 
of  nature  naturally  imagined  themselves  to  be  in 
the  midst  of  a  battle  of  the  Titans,  issued  forth 
from  the  Chthonian  Sea  against  the  celestial  pow- 
ers, combined  with  the  Hecatonchirs,  other  ter- 
restrial forces  in  conflict  with  the  Titans,  and 
their  imagination  depicted  these  tremendous  ad- 
versaries, the  ones  stationed  on  the  summit  of 
Othrys,  the  others  on  the  summit  of  Olympus, 
reciprocally  endeavoring  to  crush  each  other  by 
hurling  burning  rocks."  * 

♦Lenormant,  Beginnings  of  History,  pp.  361,  362. 


II. 

GODS  AND  HALF-GODS. 

POSEIDON  is  placed  by  Gladstone  among  the 
five  greater  gods  of  Greece,  The  four  re- 
maining gods  are  Zeus,  Hera,  Apollo,  and  Athene. 
"  These  five  deities  are  all  of  them  strongly 
marked  in  individual  character,  widely  different 
each  from  all  the  rest,  and  yet  each  effectually 
subordinated  to  the  fundamental  conditions  of 
the  system,  in  which  the  poet  has  assigned  to 
them  commanding  positions.  They  are  also  par- 
ticularly associated  in  this  important  respect, 
that  each  of  them  is  based  upon  a  single  leading 
idea.  It  is  not  very  easy  to  find"  in  every  case, 
an  English  word  which  shall  satisfactorily  ex- 
press this  idea.  For  the  present  I  would  state 
the  case  as  follows  :  The  leading  idea  of  Zeus  is 
polity,  taking  this  word  as  the  rendering  of  the 
Greek  Politike.  The  leading  idea  of  Poseidon 
is  physical,  not  mental  force ;  of  Here,  nation- 
ality ;  of  Athene,  mental  force ;  and  of  Apollo, 
obedience,  or  conformity  to  the  will  of  Zeus."* 
The  god  which  is  the  subject  of  Gladstone's 

*  Gladstone,  The  Nineteenth  Century,  March,  1887,  p.  460. 
28 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  29 

study  is  the  Homeric  Poseidon.  His  original 
character  can  not  be  satisfactorily  determined. 
A  native  and  perhaps  elemental  god  may  have 
furnished  the  basis  of  this  character,  but  the 
superstructure  contains  many  foreign  elements. 
He  is  the  sea-god,  and  possessor  of  the  trident; 
but  he  is  also  the  god  of  the  horse,  the  god  of 
earthquakes,  the  god  of  the  building  art,  the 
god  of  special  families  and  races,  and  "the  god 
who  stands  personally  related  to  rebellious  pow- 
ers." Some  of  these  functions  he  possesses  in 
common  with  other  divinities.  He  is  the  second 
of  the  three  brothers  of  Cronos,  among  whom 
the  dominion  of  the  world  was  distributed  by 
lot.  While  Zeus  has  the  wide  heaven  and  Aido- 
neus  has  the  gloomy  underworld,  to  Poseidon 
falls  the  gray  sea.  The  earth  is  common  to 
them  all.  The  three  brothers  originally  stood 
on  an  exact  equality.  Poseidon  claims  for  him- 
self the  same  rank  with  Zeus,  and  never  admits 
even  an  advantage  in  point  of  age ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  never  resists.  Zeus  calls  him 
"the  oldest  and  the  best  of  gods."  Poseidon 
speaks  as  an  equal  when  he  says  of  Zeus  :  "  Let 
him  not  bully  me,  as  if  I  were  a  coward ;  but 
let  him  keep  his  big  words  for  his  own  sons 
and  daughters,  who  have  no  choice  but  to  obey 
him." 


30  DEPARTED  GODS. 

This  gray  god  of  the  sea  is  surpassed  by- 
Zeus  alone  in  his  relations  with  women  and 
nymphs,  and. in  his  many  lines  of  descendants. 
Briareus,  the  hundred-handed,  known  among 
mortals  as  Aigaion,  is  his  son ;  and  Thoosa, 
daughter  of  Phorcus,  bore  him  Polyphemus.  He 
is  the  father  of  Nausithoos  and  the  royal  line  of 
Scherie  by  Periboia.  Turo  bears  to  him  Pelias 
and  Neleus,  and  from  Iphimedeia  he  has  Otos 
and  Ephialtes.*  His  paternal  feeling  seldom 
rises  higher  than  brute  instinct.  His  strength 
is  not  of  intellect,  but  of  hand ;  not  of  heart, 
but  of  gross  physical  frame.  He  seldom  does 
anything  suggestive  of  real  divinity. 

Nereus  was  the  old  elemental  god  of  the  sea, 
but  since  the  arrival  of  Poseidon  he  has  been 
banished  to  the  deep  sea.  His  greater  succes- 
sor is  confined  to  the  surface  of  the  waters.  He 
dwells  in  a  palace,  and  the  axle  of  his  chariot  is 
not  wetted.  In  his  own  province  his  powers 
are  conditional  and  limited,  while  other  deities, 
unchallenged,  invade  his  realm. 

But  the  god  has  important  relations  to  the 
land.  He  is  the  god  of  earthquakes.  The 
mountains  and  the  forests  tremble  under  his 
feet.  On  one  occasion  he  shook  the  earth  so 
violently  that  the  god  of  the  underworld  leaped 

*  Gladstone,  The  Nineteenth  Century,  March,  1887,  p.  463. 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  31 

from  his  throne,  fearing  lest  the  rocky  crust 
should  break  and  disclose  to  the  eyes  of  the 
gods  above  his  own  dismal  realm. 

Poseidon  was  doubtless  a  foreign  god,  or  the 
result  of  the  fusion  of  the  elements  of  a  native  and 
a  foreign  cult.  He  may  have  been  introduced 
from  Caria  or  Libya.  Gladstone  favors  an  origin 
from  the  south  and  the  east,  because  of  his  rela- 
tion to  the  horse,  his  epithet  of  earthshaJcer,  and 
one  of  his  titles  drawn  from  the  color  of  his  hair, 
which  was  black,  with  a  slight  trace,  hint,  sus- 
picion, or  soupcon  of  blue.  He  seems  to  have 
been  the  special  god  of  the  Eastern  ^Ethiopians. 
As  the  god  of  foreigners  who  reached  Greece 
from  across  the  sea,  he  became  very  naturally 
the  god  of  the  sea. 

In  many  parts  of  the  Odysseus,  Poseidon 
seems  to  have  escaped  the  yoke  of  the  Olym- 
pian system,  and  breathes  a  freer  atmosphere 
and  exercises  more  ample  powers  and  prerog- 
atives. 

The  worship  of  Poseidon  was  not  confined  to 
maritime  States,  but  prevailed  the  most  exten- 
sively near  the  coast.  Human  sacrifices  were 
offered,  horses  were  buried  alive,  and  his  com- 
panions were  "wild  Titans  and  spiteful  demons." 
The  Hellenes  never  entirely  abandoned  his  wor- 
ship, and  he  always  maintained  his  position  and 


32  DEPARTED  GODS. 

character  as  god  of  the  sea.  "  Even  where  he 
was  worshiped  in  the  interior,  men  believed 
they  heard  the  salt-waves  resounding  under  his 
temple."* 

His  temple  at  Mycale  was  the  center  of  the 
federal  institutions  which  originated  in  Miletus 
and  Ephesus,  and  which  united  twelve  cities. 

His  most  famous  festival  was  that  celebrated 
every  second  year  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 
The  pine  was  sacred  to  him,  and  a  row  of  these 
trees  stood  near  his  temple  on  the  isthmus.  A 
wreath  of  pine-leaves  was  the  prize  of  victory 
at  the  Isthmian  games. 

He  is  represented  in  works  of  art  holding  a 
trident,  and  with  a  dolphin  on  his  hand  or  under 
his  feet.  Sometimes  he  rides  a  bull,  a  horse,  or 
a  sea-horse,  or  rides  in  a  chariot,  and  is  often 
surrounded  by  the  Nereids  and  other  fabulous 
inhabitants  of  the  sea. 

The  character  of  Apollo  is  one  of  the  most 
attractive  of  the  whole  Olympian  court,  and  has 
been  studied  with  almost  affectionate  reverence. 
His  worship  was  probably  foreign,  and  may 
have  been  introduced  from  Lycia  or  Crete ;  but 
it  soon  became  an  important  part  of  the  Hel- 
lenic system.  Apollo  was  now  made  the  son 
and  interpreter  of  Zeus. 

*  Curtius,  History  of  Greece,  Vol.  I,  p.  65. 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  33 

"Apollo  rises  on  the  vision  of  one  familiar 
with  Greek  antiquity  as  almost  a  pure  concep- 
tion, almost  an  angelic  divinity.  To  a  form  of 
ideal  beauty,  combining  youthful  grace  and  vigor 
with  the  fullest  perfection  of  manly  strength,  he 
added  unerring  wisdom,  complete  insight  into 
futurity,  an  unstained  life,  the  magic  power  of 
song,  ability  and  will  to  save  and  heal,  together 
with  the  dread  prerogative  of  dealing  out  at  his 
pleasure  destruction  and  death.  Compassionate 
on  occasions  as  Mercy  herself,  he  shows  at 
times  the  keen  and  awful  severity  of  a  destroy- 
ing archangel.  Ekobolos,  i  striking  from  afar,' 
he  speeds  his  fatal  shafts  from  his  unfailing  bow, 
and  smites  whomsoever  he  will  with  a  death- 
stroke  which  there  is  no  escaping.  Never  of- 
fended without  cause,  never  moved  by  caprice, 
he  works  the  will  of  Zeus  in  all  that  he*  does — 
dispenses  retributive  justice,  and  purifies  with 
wholesome  fear  the  souls  of  men.  Partaker  of 
all  the  counsels  of  his  father,  and  permitted  to 
use  his  discretion  in  communicating  them  to  the 
denizens  of  earth,  he  delivers  his  oracular  re- 
sponses from  the  various  spots  which  he  has 
chosen  as  his  special  abodes ;  and,  though  some- 
times his  replies  may  be  of  doubtful  import,  he 
seldom  sends  away  a  votary  unsatisfied.  The 
answers  which  he  gives,  or,  at  any  rate,  is  sup- 


34  DEPARTED  OODS. 

posed  to  give,  determine  the  decisions  of  states- 
men and  shape  the  course  of  history.  War  and 
peace,  treaties  and  alliances,  are  made  and  un- 
made as  the  Delphic  and  other  oracles,  inspired 
by  him,  advise;  and  the  course  of  Hellenic  col- 
onization is  almost  entirely  determined  by  his 
decrees.  Poet,  prophet,  physician,  harper,  god 
of  victory  and  angel  of  death  in  one,  Apollo 
is  always  on  the  side  of  right — always  true 
to  Zeus,  and  not  much  inferior  to  him  in 
power."  * 

An  analogy  has  been  traced  between  Apollo 
and  the  Son  of  God.  Gladstone  says :  "  In 
Apollo  are  represented  the  legendary  anticipa- 
tions of  a  person  to  come,  in  whom  should  be 
combined  all  the  great  offices  in  which  God  the 
Son  is  now  made  known  to  man — as  the  Light 
of  our  paths,  the  Physician  of  our  diseases,  the 
Judge  of  our  misdeeds,  and  the  Conqueror 
and  Disarmer,  but  not  Abolisher,  of  death."  f 
The  character  of  Apollo  is  shown  in  his  active 
embracement  of  the  will  of  Zeus.  Returning  to 
this  subject,  Gladstone  says :  "  To  this  most  curi- 
ous and  striking  feature  of  the  Apollo,  I  am  not 
aware  that  anything  analogous  has  been  found 
in  what  are  commonly  known  as  Aryan  tradi- 


*  Rawlinson,The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  pp.  188-190. 
t  Gladstone,  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,  Vol.  II,  p.  132. 


BRONZE  STATUE  OF  APOLLO— THE  COLOSSUS  OK  RHODES 
(One  of  the  Seven  Wonders. )  35 


36  DEPARTED  GODS. 

tions,  or  in  the  results  of  Egyptian  research. 
When  we  approach  the  Semitic  province,  there  is 
a  change.  In  the  Assyrian  system,  as  it  is  set 
forth  in  the  volume  of  Professor  Sayce,  the 
character  of  Merodach  appears  to  be  related  to 
that  of  the  god  Hea,  his  father,  in  a  manner 
much  corresponding  with  the  relation  between 
the  Apollo  and  the  Zeus  of  Homer.  We  are 
now  brought  upon  ground  where  remarkable  co- 
incidences have  already  been  disclosed,  although 
it  is  impossible  to  forecast  the  bearings  of  future 
Assyrian  discoveries  on  what  has  been  already 
found.  But  if  Merodach  exhibits  a  correspond- 
ence with  the  Homeric  conception,  he  corre- 
sponds also  with  what  may  be  his  Semitic  origi- 
nal; namely,  the  undeveloped  but  most  significant 
tradition  recorded  in  the  book  of  Genesis  re- 
specting a  future  Deliverer,  who  was  to  bruise 
the  serpent's  head,  and  to  undo  his  work  by 
restoring  mankind  to  that  very  union  with  the 
highest  will  which  had  been  broken  by  trans- 
gression, and  of  which  the  Homeric  Apollo  ex- 
hibits an  unvarying  and  finished  example."* 
This  is  a  daring  comparison,  but  it  has  reason 
and  weight. 

The    advent    of   Apollo-worship    marked    an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  Greece.     "It  resembled 

*  Gladstone,  The  Nineteenth  Century,  May,  1887,  p.  751. 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  37 

a  second  day  of  creation  in  the  history  of  their 
spiritual  development."  Great  advancement  was 
made  in  the  social  order,  and  improvements  in 
all  that  pertained  to  Hellenic  civilization  were 
inaugurated  on  every  hand.  Religion  became 
more  spiritual,  music  and  song  gave  expression 
to  the  pure  joys  of  the  heart,  man  was  brought 
into  a  closer  and  more  blessed  communion  with 
the  gods,  and  the  voice  of  great  Zeus  was  heard 
in  the  inspired  utterances  of  the  prophets.  The 
power  of  the  Erinnyes  was  broken,  the  cry  of  the 
penitent  was  heard  and  his  sin  pardoned,  and  a 
reign  of  divine  grace  began. 

The  religion  of  Apollo  had  its  different  phases. 
In  the  mountain  and  forest  worship  of  Hylates, 
on  Cyprus,  and  among  the  Magnetes,  wild  cus- 
toms prevailed.  Apollo  as  Delphinius  is  a  sea- 
god  ;  and  at  Delphi  he  is  "  the  god  of  light  and 
right,  who  guides  the  course  of  States,  the  spir- 
itual center  of  the  whole  Hellenic  world.  In  this 
Apollo,  Hellenic  polytheism  received  its  harmoni- 
ous completion,  and  the  loftiest  glorification  of 
which  it  was  capable."* 

There  had  been,  before  the  days  of  Homer,  a 
cult  of  the  sun-god  within  Achoean  territory. 
The  prevailing  worship  of  Ithaca  seems  to  have 
been  sun-worship,  as    Gladstone   has  made  out 

•CurtiuB,  History  of  Greece.  Vol.  I.  pp.  67.  68. 
4 


38  DEPARTED  GODS. 

with  great  probability.*  The  ruling  name  of 
Phoebus  was  given  to  this  nature-power,  and 
"this  sun-god  grows  into  and  forms  what  may  be 
called  the  material  and  popular  basis  for  the  Ho- 
meric Apollo."  The  latter  is  the  god  of  the  in- 
fluence of  the  sun  on  nature,  while,  as  his  subor- 
dinate, Helios  guides  the  orb  in  his  daily  course ; 
just  as  Artemis  personifies  the  power  of  the  moon, 
while  Selene  guides  her  course. 

Apollo  was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Leto,  and 
was  born  on  the  island  of  Delos,  which  Pindar 
says  had  been  a  barren  rock,  floating  about  in 
the  sea,  but  was  at  that  time  made  stationary  by 
being  fastened  down  by  pillars.  The  same  also 
happened  to  Rhodes,  the  center  of  the  worship 
of  Helios.  The  child-god  immediately  seized  a 
bow,  and  announced  his  purpose  to  found  an 
oracle.  His  father  gave  him  a  lyre,  a  miter 
wherewith  to  bind  his  hair,  and  a  car  drawn  by 
swans.  He  set  out  for  Delphi ;  but  the  swans 
carried  him  off  to  their  home  among  the  Hyper- 
boreans, whence  he  returned  not  till  the  succeed- 
ing summer.  The  solar  character  of  these  myths 
is  unquestionable.  Apollo  gave  oracles  at  other 
places  besides  Delphi,  and  communicated  the 
prophetic  gift  to  certain  mortals.  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  Muses,  and  was  jealous  of  his  gift. 

♦Gladstone,  The  Nineteenth  Century,  May,  1887. 


GODS  AND  HALF  00D8.  3(J 

He  caused  Marsyas  to7  be  flayed  alive,  because 
he  boasted  his  skill  iu  playing  the  flute;  and 
mused  the  ears  of  Midas  to  grow  long,  because 
he  sided  with  Pan,  who  held  the  flute  to  be  a 
better  instrument  than  the  lyre.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, our  purpose  to  pursue  the  myths  which  have 
gathered  around  Apollo. 

A  round  of  festivals  kept  always  in  view  the 
god  in  his  relations  to  nature.  Perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  was  the  Carneia,  which,  in  the 
month  of  August,  engaged  the  attention  of  the 
whole  population  of  Sparta,  who  withdrew  from 
the  town  for  several  days,  and  lived  in  tents,  as 
if  to  avoid  the  intense  heat  of  the  season.  In 
July  they  held  a  nine-days'  festival,  called  the 
Hyacinthia,  which  celebrates  the  transitoriness 
of  life,  but  also  faith  in  its  return.  The  May 
festival  of  Thargelia  celebrated  the  ripening  of 
the  fruits;  and  the  August  festival  of  Meta- 
geitnia  recognized  him  as  the  god  of  plenty,  and 
promoted  good  fellowship  among  neighbors. 
These  two  festivals  belonged  to  Athens.  At 
Delphi  two  festivals  were  especially  conspic- 
uous— at  the  beginning  of  winter  and  at  the  be- 
ginning of  spring,  when  Apollo  was  supposed  to 
visit  the  Hyperborean  regions  and  return  to  his 
sacred  seat.  At  Thebes  every  eighth  year  the 
Daphnephoria  was  celebrated  in  honor  of  Isme- 


40  DEPARTED  GODS. 

nios  Apollo,  when  a  branch  of  olive  was  carried 
in  procession,  hung  with  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five  wreaths,  and  representations  of  the 
sun,  moon,  planets,  and  stars. 

The  worship  of  Apollo  was  introduced  in 
Rome  in  B.  C.  320,  when  the  city  was  visited  by 
a  pestilence. 

The  principal  symbols  of  the  god  were  the 
bow,  the  lyre,  the  tripod,  the  laurel,  the  palm, 
the  wolf,  the  deer,  and  the  raven.  Art,  in  its 
ripest  period,  sought  to  combine  in  him  the 
strength  of  manhood  and  the  perfection  of  eter- 
nal youth.  His  long  hair  is  usually  tied  in  a 
knot  above  his  forehead.  When  represented  as 
the  leader  of  the  Muses,  his  tresses  fall  about 
his  shoulders,  and  his  long  drapery  is  girt  at 
the  waist. 

Athene,  as  a  nature-goddess,  may  have  been 
originally  a  personification  of  the  bright  upper 
regions  of  the  sky.  As  Pallas,  she  was  connected 
with  storms. 

Athene,  in  the  Olympian  Assembly,  sat  on 
the  left  side  of  Zeus,  Hera  sitting  on  his  right 
side.  She  was  the  goddess  of  war,  and  was 
armed  with  spear  and  helmet,  and  the  dread 
cegis  of  her  father.  While  Apollo  sometimes 
took  the  cegis  in  hand  at  the  command  of  Zeus, 
she  assumed  it  spontaneously.     She   was   resist- 


olniD|*|nia]i 


STATUE  OK  PALLAS  ATHENE. 


42  DEPARTED  GODS. 

less  among  heroes,  and  was,  as  we  shall  see, 
more  than  a  match  for  Ares  himself.  She  also 
fostered  the  arts  of  peace,  and  invented  spinning 
and  weaving,  the  art  of  taming  horses,  the  flute, 
and  the  healing  art.  She  was  the  goddess  of 
polity,  and  of  personal  discipline  and  superin- 
tendence. 

Zeus,  according  to  ancient  story,  swallowed 
his  wife  Metis,  "intelligence,"  and  Athene  sprang 
from  his  head  full-grown.  She  has  been  called 
"a  conscious  impersonation  of  the  divine  wis- 
dom." By  many  she  has  been  considered  an 
almost  faultless  ideal  female  character.  Homer 
ranks  her  with  Zeus  and  Apollo.  She  combined 
purity,  wisdom,  and  strength;  and  her  influence 
was  healthful  and  ennobling.  She  was  worshiped 
with  sacrifices,  prayers,  and  festivals. 

"It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  describe 
in  a  single  word  the  base,  or  leading  idea,  of 
the  Homeric  Athene.  The  shortest  account,  per- 
haps, that  can  be  given  of  her,  so  as  to  convey 
a  living  idea,  is  that  she  is  the  Olympian  reflec- 
tion of  Odysseus.  Like  him,  she  is  polutropos — 
many-sided,  and  full  of  resource.  Like  his,  her 
purpose  is  of  iron,  her  methods  are  of  the  mate- 
rial, be  it  hard  or  soft ;  best  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose, whatever  it  may  be.  Like  him,  she  can 
not  be  small,  she  must  be  large ;  but  she  may  be 


GODS  AND  HALF-QODS. 


43 


either  true  or  untrue  as  the  occasion  requires. 
Like,  though  even  beyond  him,  she  is  full  of 
forethought,  has  no  waste  of  power,  is  always  in 
measure,  never  in  excess.  In  fact,  these  types 
of  character  are  so  wedded  to  one  another  that 
we  may  go  a  long 
way  with  the  absolute 
parallel  before  we 
reach  those  points,  as 
it  were  upon  the  fringe 
of  each,  where  the  lines 
diverge  —  where  the 
human  would  pass 
from  consummate  art 
into  exaggeration,  if  it 
were  absolutely  assim- 
ilated to  the  divine. 
"  In  him,  as  a  man, 
limitation  is  necessary ; 
in  her,  it  is  less  trace- 
able, as  to  her  relations  to  the  earth  and  man,  than 
in  any  other  deity.  Though  he  never  fails,  yet  he 
may  put  up  with  a  drawn  battle,  as  in  the  Games. 
Her  success,  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  is 
always  assured.  The  culminating  threat  of  Zeus 
to  the  assembled  gods  (II.  viii,  18-27)  is  forth- 
with softened  down  for  her  (39,  40).  Odysseus 
is,  in  more  than  one  case,  carried  away  by  pas- 


Pali.as  Athene. 


44  DEPARTED  QODS. 

sion  into  pure  error  of  judgment,  with  destruc- 
tive consequences.  The  nearest  approach  to 
error  that  I  can  find  in  the  conduct  of  Pallas  is 
in  the  eighth  Iliad.  .  .  .  She  has  no  grace, 
but  much  tact.  She  is  not,  except  in  jealousy, 
womanish;  but  she  never  wholly  ceases  to  be 
feminine — never  is  she  rough  or  coarse  in  her 
dealings  with  men.  She  never  enters  personally, 
like  Here,  into  collision  with  Zeus.  The  reproach 
against  Here  by  her  husband — that  she  would 
like  to  eat  Priam  and  his  children  raw  (iv,  35) — 
is  one  that  would  be  utterly  incongruous  if  ad- 
dressed to  Athene.  .  .  .  She  is  perpetually 
thinking  of  the  affairs  and  interests  of  those 
she  cares  for,  when  they  are  themselves  unmind- 
ful; and  she  makes  provision  for  them  by  unso- 
licited, as  well  as  by  solicited,  intervention.  She 
never  enters  into  mere  contests  of  the  tongue — 
never  wastes  a  word.  Athene,  of  the  flashing 
eye,  presents  to  us  a  marked  contrast  between 
the  different  internal  centers  of  responsible  ac- 
tion. Her  intellect  is  a  bow  always  strung;  it 
is  ever  ready,  and  alive;  but  her  emotional  na- 
ture is  as  constantly  under  bit  and  bridle.  The 
worst  threats  of  Zeus  do  not  stir  any  passion, 
nor  even  fear;  they  are  received  with  a  low 
murmur  (II.  iv,  20),  or  in  silence  (viii,  436). 
She  is   only  bored  or  vexed   (tetiemene)  at  the 


46  DEPARTED  GODS. 

obstacle  placed  for  the  moment  in  the  way  of 
her  plans.  With  so  much  power,  and  such  reg- 
ulation of  it,  it  is  in  her  nature  to  inspire  the 
human  mind  with  a  degree  of  faith  and  confi- 
dence, of  which  we  have  no  other  equally  strik- 
ing example."* 

He  speaks  of  the  Homeric  goddess. 

Hayman  brings  a  heavy  bill  of  charges  against 
the  character  of  Athene.  She  never  feels  any 
tenderness  or  affection;  she  acknowledges  no 
obligation,  and  she  is  absolutely  without  pity. 
She  is  busy  and  restless,  unscrupulous  in  partner- 
ship, astute  in  policy,  and  profound  in  dissimula- 
tion. She  is  keenly  satirical  and  crafty,  and 
comprehends  no  motives  except  those  which  are 
base.  She  mocks  the  weak,  and  exults  over  them. 
While  faithful  in  behalf  of  a  comrade,  she  is  yet 
heartless.  She  loves  Odysseus  for  his  roguery  and 
cunning.  Indeed,  these  are  the  qualities  which 
she  would  doubtless  most  heartilv  commend. 
Withal  she  would  avoid  no  hazard  to  back  a 
friend,  and  is  always  ready  and  prompt.  These 
considerations  can  not  but  seriously  deduct  from 
our  admiration  for  her  character,  f 

Zeus,  Athene,  and  Apollo  are  in  several  re- 
spects placed  far  above  all  other  divinities  of  the 

*  Gladstone,  The  Nineteenth  Century,  July,  1887,  pp.  81, 82. 
tMahaffy,  Social  Life  in  Greece,  pp.  41,  42. 


(,'ODS  AXl>  IIALFCODS. 


47 


Greek  Pantheon.  Gladstone,  in  his  masterly  anal- 
ysis of  the  character  of  Athene,  in  speaking  of 
the  accordances  of  this  goddess  with  Apollo,  men- 
tions no  less  than  thirteen  important  qualities  or 
properties  by  which  they  are  jointly  distinguished. 


THE  PARTHENON— TEMPLE  OF  PALLAS  ATHENE,  FROM  THE 
GROVE  OF  ACADEMUS. 

We  must  understand  him  as  treating  only  of  the 
Homeric  divinities.  Both  have  a  special  and  ex- 
ceptional parentage.  They  are  peculiarly  asso- 
ciated with  Zeus  in  worship;  and, as  if  they  were 
sharers  of  his  supreme  power,  both  carry  the 
segis,  the  symbol  of  supreme  authority.  They 
exercise  power  in  the  operations  of  nature  "  out- 


48  DEPARTED  GODS. 

side  their  particular  Olympian  prerogatives." 
Aside  from  Zens,  they  are  the  only  divinities  dis- 
tinctly named  as  having  part  in  that  providence 
which  directs  the  affairs  of  men.  They,  too,  ex- 
hibit to  men  visible  manifestations  of  their  prov- 
idential office.  Neither  makes  use  of  instruments 
or  secondary  causes  to  produce  corporal  or  men- 
tal effects.  Both  administer  punishment  by  their 
own  authority.  They  spontaneously  recognize 
and  act  upon  the  moral  order  of  the  world.  In 
the  exercise  of  their  powers  and  prerogatives  they 
overlap  the  provinces  of  other  duties  even  in  their 
most  pronounced  specialties.  They  are  set  free 
from  the  limitations  of  space  and  sense.  Prayer 
is  addressed  to  them  in  all  places.  There  are  no 
stages  recognized  in  their  journeys.  Neither  of 
these  deities  is  ever  stated  to  drink,  or  eat,  or 
sleep.  They  are  never  wearied,  they  are  never 
wounded,  and  they  never  suffer  pain.  No  pas- 
sion ever  disturbs  their  pure  hearts.  Athene  re- 
mained the  maiden  goddess,  and  Apollo,  in  his 
Homeric  character,  seems  never  to  have  been 
moved  by  sexual  desire.  There  is  a  passage  in 
the  "  Iliad  "  which  has  been  understood  to  signify 
that  Apollo  ravished  Marpessa,  but  the  passage 
yields  to  a  different  explanation.  Neither  of  these 
divinities  is  associated  with  any  local  home,  and 
their  worship  is  not  subject  to  local  limitations. 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  49 

They  exercise  powers  not  within  the  course  of 
nature  or  human  experience.  They  assume  at 
will  various  forms,  and  change  the  processes  of 
nature.  For  illustrations  of  these  several  points 
the  reader  must  be  referred  to  the  brilliant  article 
of  Gladstone,  where  they  are  worked  out  in  much 
detail.* 

We  now  come  to  the  discussion  of  the  character 
of  the  last  of  the  greater  gods  of  Greece.  Hera, 
like  most  of  the  early  Grecian  divinities,  was 
doubtless  at  first  of  Pelasgian,  or  at  least  of  for- 
eign, origin.  She  seems  to  have  represented  the 
fruitful  earth,  and  her  divine  marriage  with  Zeus 
was  the  ever-repeated  union  between  Heaven  and 
Earth. 

The  ancient  Ayran  idea  derived  all  life  from  a 
divine  pair,  whose  fertility  suggested  the  concep- 
tion of  them  as  a  bull  and  a  cow.  Zeus,  in  the 
form  of  a  bull,  carried  off  Europa.  According  to 
Hesychius,  Europa  is  an  epithet  of  Hera.  She 
is  sometimes  presented  to  us  as  the  moon-goddess 
under  the  epithet  Eileithyia.  Eubcea  is  one  of 
her  epithets,  the  name  of  one  of  her  nurses,  the 
name  of  the  island  in  which  she  was  brought  up, 
and  the  name  of  the  mountain  at  whose  foot  was 
her   most  celebrated  temple.      But  this  word,  as 


•Gladstone,  The  Nineteenth  Century,  July  1887,  pp.  92-102. 


50  DEPARTED  GODS. 

well  as  her  epithet  Bounaia,  contains  the  word 
meaning  cow. 

She  is  represented  at  Sainos  by  the  simple 
symbol  of  a  plank,  and  at  Thespise  by  a  branch. 
In  some  of  the  paintings  she  is  hardly  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  Artemis  and  Aphrodite.  In 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae,  Henry  Schliemann  found 
cow-headed  figures,  which  he  maintained  are 
idols  of  this  goddess.  The  horns — those  of  Isis 
as  well;  there  was  probably  some  connection  be- 
tween Egypt  and  Mycenae — may  be  the  symbolic 
horns  of  the  crescent  representing  the  moon.  We 
may  consider  her  epithet  "  cow-eyed,"  of  Homer, 
as  an  interesting  survival  of  her  early  character.  * 

In  her  character  as  a  Greek  goddess,  she  was 
queen  of  heaven,  and  seemed  to  exercise  all  the 
authority  of  her  lord.  She  presided  over  child- 
birth, and  her  daughters,  the  Eileithyiae,  act  as 
her  ministers.  The  patroness  of  marriages,  she 
was  ever  true  to  her  own  marital  relations,  and 
demanded  perfect  purity  among  her  devotees.  She 
was  strong,  haughty,  full  of  intense  hates  and 
likings,  and  justly  jealous  of  her  husband.  The 
poets  relate  her  bitter  persecutions  of  the  hero- 
ines, who  became  the  objects  of  her  husband's  un- 
holy passion.    She  was  much  worshiped,  and  with 

*  Schliemann,  Mycenae  and  Tiryns,  pp.  vi,  vii,  10-13,  19-22, 
362-364. 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  51 

true  devotion,  and  had  many  temples,  many  stat- 
ues, and  many  altars  to  which  the  faithful  resorted. 

In  the  Olympian  court,  the  rank  of  Hera  is 
clearly  recognized.  She  is  at  once  the  sister  and 
wife  of  Zeus  ;  the  gods  rise  from  their  seats  as 
she  enters  the  council ;  and  she  participates  in 
certain  prerogatives  of  her  lord.  Like  Athene,  she 
is  permitted  to  wield  the  thunder-bolt,  she  never 
exercises  any  influence  by  personal  contact  with 
mortals,  but  by  the  direct  action  of  the  mind,  and 
she  commands  the  services  of  other  deities.  The 
nationality  of  her  character  gave  her  a  large 
place  in  the  heart  of  Greece. 

But  her  character  sometimes  descends  very 
low.  She  may  almost  be  called  a  scold  and  ter- 
magant. She  is  deceitful,  full  of  mischievous 
tricks,  fractious,  and  rough-tongued.  She  lies, 
and  swears  to  it ;  and  overreaches  her  husband, 
not  by  intellect,  but  by  artifice.  She  loses  the 
respect  of  the  gods,  and  Homer  is  not  in  love  with 
her  character. 

She  possesses  great  energy  of  character,  but 
lacks  all  those  other  qualities  which  make  Athene 
great  and  majestic.  Though  occupying  so  con- 
spicuous a  position,  she  suffers  in  comparison  with 
Leto,  whose  action  in  Homer  is  so  insignificant. 
The  poet  feels  the  utmost  Teverence  for  Leto,  and 
always  treats  her  with  honor,  and  on  all  occasions 


52  DEPARTED  GODS. 

carefully  shields  her  from  disparagement.  Hera 
is  treated  quite  otherwise.  A  legend  is  recorded 
that  she  was  severely  wounded  in  the  right  breast 
by  Heracles,  and  yet  no  punishment  seems  to 
have  been  accorded  for  the  offense ;  indeed,  no 
notice  whatever  seems  to  have  been  taken  of  the 
affair.  Zeus  is  repeatedly  roused  to  anger  against 
his  spouse,  and  launches  threats  at  her  again  and 
again.  In  connection  with  Heracles  she  was  sub- 
jected to  severe  corporal  punishment  by  her  lord. 
On  one  occasion  she  was  suspended  from  heaven 
with  chained  hands,  and  anvils  attached  to  her 
feet.  So  terrible  is  this  punishment  that  the  rest 
of  the  Olympian  court  are  roused  to  indignation. 

The  respect  which  she  receives  from  the  other 
great  divinities  is  not  so  much  because  of  her 
personal  qualities  of  mind  and  heart,  as  because 
of  her  conspicuous  position  as  the  wife  of  the 
king  of  the  gods.* 

"  Her  mythological  presentation  was  certainly 
not  of  .a  nature  to  improve  the  character  of  those 
women  who  might  take  her  for  their  model ;  since, 
although  she  was  possessed  of  certain  great  qual- 
ities— passion,  fervor,  strong  affection,  self-com- 
mand, courage,  acuteness — yet  she  was,  on  the 
whole,  wanting  in  the    main    elements  of  female 

*  Gladstone,  The  Contemporary  Review,  February  1888,  pp. 
181,  182. 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  53 

excellence — gentleness,  softness,  tenderness,  pa- 
tience, submission  to  wrong,  self-renunciation,  ret- 
icence. She  was  a  proud,  grand,  haughty,  pow- 
erful queen ;  not  a  kind,  helpful,  persuasive,  lov- 
ing woman."* 

Ares,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  was  the  god 
of  battles — "  a  personification  of  the  wild,  im- 
petuous spirit  with  which  battles  were  fought." 
He  was  splendidly  armed  with  helmet,  shield, 
cuirass,  and  spear — swift  of  foot,  great  of  size, 
unsatiable  of  war,  furious,  raging,  murderous.  His 
companions  were  Fury,  Strife,  Dread,  and  Alarm. 
He  was  largely,  however,  under  the  authority  of 
Apollo  and  Athene,  to  whom  he  was  compelled 
to  yield.  His  worship  is  thought  to  have  been 
introduced  from  Thrace,  and  the  roughness  of  his 
character  precluded  its  general  adoption  by  the 
refined  Hellenes. 

Diomedes,  with  the  assistance  of  Athene, 
wounded  Ares,  and 

"  The  furious  god 
Uttered  a  cry  as  of  nine  thousand  men, 
Or  of  ten  thousand,  rushing  to  the  fight." 

And  when  to  avenge  himself,  he  aimed  his 
huge  spear  at  Athene, 

"  She  only  stepped 
Backward  a  space,  and  with  her  powerful  hand 


*Rawlinson,  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  p.  196. 


54  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Lifted  a  stone  that  lay  upon  the  plain, 
Black,  huge,  and  jagged,  which  the  men  of  old 
Had  placed  there  for  a  landmark.     This  she  hurled 
At  Mars,  and  struck  him  on  the  neck ;  he  fell 
With  nervous  limbs,  and  covered,  as  he  lay, 
Seven  acres  of  the  field."  * 

Hephaestus,  was   the    god  of  fire,  and   most 
skillful  in  smelting  and  metallurgy.    He  was  the 


ARES. 


artificer  of  the  gods,  forged  the  thunder-bolts  of 
Zeus,  and  provided  the  gods  with  armor  and  war- 
like weapons.  In  pre-Hellenic  times  he  may  have 
been  an  elemental  god.  Zeus  cast  him  out  of 
heaven.     Addressing  his  mother  Hera,  he  says : 

"  For  hard  it  is  to  strive  with  Jupiter. 

Already  once,  when  I  took  part  with  thee, 
He  seized  me  by  the  foot  and  flung  me  o'er 
The  battlements  of  heaven.  All  day  I  fell, 
And  with  the  setting  sun  I  struck  the  earth 


*  Homer,  The   Iliad— Bryant's   Translation,  v,  1075-1077- 
xxi,  499-506. 


GODS  AND  HALF  GODS.  55 

In  Lemnos.     Little  life  was  left  in  me, 

What  time  the  Sintians  took   me  from  the  ground." 

Legends  concerning  dwarfed  and  grotesque, 
and  yet  strong  and  skillful  workers  in  metals,  are 
widely  extended  among  many  nations.  Hephaes- 
tus made  sport  for  the  gods. 

"  As  they  beheld 
Lame  Vulcan  laboring  o'er  the  palace-floor, 
An  inextinguishable  laughter  broke 
From  all  the  blessed  gods."* 

"  He  spoke  and  rose,  a  wondrous  bulk,  from 
his  anvil-block,  limping,  and  his  weak  legs  moved 
actively  beneath  him.  The  bellows  he  laid  apart 
from  the  fire,  and  all  the  tools  with  which  he  la- 
bored he  collected  into  a  silver  chest.  With  a 
sponge  he  wiped,  all  over,  his  face  and  both  his 
hands,  his  strong  neck  and  shaggy  breast ;  then 
put  on  his  tunic,  and  seized  his  stout  scepter. 
But  he  went  out  of  the  doors  limping,  and  golden 
handmaids,  like  unto  living  maidens,  moved 
briskly  about  the  king ;  and  in  their  bosoms  was 
prudence  with  understanding,  and  within  them 
was  voice  and  strength ;  and  they  are  instructed 
in  books  by  the  immortal  gods.  These  were 
busily  occupied  by  the  king's  side;  but  he,  hob- 


*  Homer,  The    Iliad  —  Bryant's     Translation,  i,  746-752; 
(57-760. 


56  DEPARTED  GODS. 

bling  along,  sat  down  upon  a  splendid  throne  near 
where  Thetis  was."  * 

Such  was  his  appearance  when  consulted  con- 
cerning the  shield  of  Achilles  : 

"  It  is  characteristic  of  the  many-sidedness 
of  the  Greeks,  and  consequent  upon  the  anthro- 
pomorphism which  makes  the  Olympic  com- 
munity a  reflection  of  earthly  things,  that  there 
should  be,  even  in  this  august  conclave,  some- 
thing provocative  of  laughter,  a  discord  to  break 
the  monotony  of  the  harmony,  an  element  of 
grotesqueness  and  monstrosity."  f 

The  marriage  of  Hephaestus  and  Aphrodite, 
the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty,  satisfied  their 
sense  of  the  humorous  and  ludicrous. 

The  ancient  Greeks  paid  Hephaestus  no 
worship.  Small  images  of  this  god,  however, 
stood  on  every  hearth  at  Athens,  and  "  the 
Amphidromia  round  the  hearth-fire  was  the  rite 
whereby  the  newly-born  child  was  adopted  into 
the  family."  In  the  old  Greek  art,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  a  bearded  man  in  full  dress,  carrying  a 
hammer;  but  in  his  later  workman's  clothes  he 
has  an  undignified  and  comic  appearance. 

Hermes  was  "  the  god  of  social  life  and  in- 
tercourse in  general,  of  streets  and  doorways,  and 

♦Homer,  The  Iliad — Buckley's  Translation,  xviii,  410-424. 
tRawlinson,  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  pp.  192, 193, 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  o7 

of  the  palaestra."  He  is  the  impersonation  of 
cleverness  and  commercial  smartness,  the  god  of 
invention,  and  the  patron  of  thieves.  He  has 
been  called  "the  Olympian  man  of  business." 
He  carries  messages,  undertakes  important  mis- 
sions, and  secures  worldly  prosperity.  He  became 
the  god  of  wisdom  and  learning,  but  his  wisdom 
was  strictly  of  a  business  and  worldly  character, 
and  he  was  far  from  careful  of  the  means  which 
he  employed,  so  that  he  accomplished  his  pur- 
poses. He  was  always  "  active,  energetic,  fruit- 
ful in  resource,  a  keen  bargainer,  a  bold  story- 
teller, and  a  clever  thief."  His  practical  shrewd- 
ness and  kindness  made  him  the  valued  patron 
of  travelers  and  the  cherished  friend  of  the 
weary.  In  his  nature  there  was  an  element  of 
humor  and  drollery,  which  often  served  him  well. 
He  invented  speech,  eloquence,  the  alphabet, 
weights  and  measures,  numbers,  and  music.  The 
representations  show  him  in  his  early  manhood. 
His  head  and  ankles  are  winged,  to  symbolize  his 
swiftness  of  movement.  He  exchanged  ljis  lyre 
with  Apollo  for  the  caduceus  or  rod  of  wealth, 
which  served  also  as  a  herald's  staff.  The  statue 
of  Praxiteles,  in  the  Heraion  at  Olympia,  repre- 
sents the  god  leaning  with  his  left  hand  on  a 
rock,  and  supporting  thereon  the  infant  Bacchus. 
The  right  arm  has  been  lost. 


58  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  mythological  relations  of  Hermes  are  dif- 
ficult to  trace,  and  still  more  difficult  to  explain. 
He  is  sometimes  connected  with  the  mysterious 
Cabiri.  In  the  hymn  to  Aphrodite,  Hermes  and 
the  Sileni  are  the  companions  of  the  mountain 
nymphs,  and  in  Arcadia  he  is  the  father  of  Pan  by 
Penelope.  For  the  full  treat- 
ment of  the  questions  suggested 
by  such  relations  larger  works 
must  be  consulted. 

Artemis,  the  twin  sister  of 
Apollo,  possessed  in  a  less 
pronounced  degree  the  same 
attributes  with  her  divine 
brother — purity,  chastity,  maj- 
esty, skill  in  archery,  and 
ministry  of  death.  She  was 
endowed  with  the  same  exalted 
type  of  beauty,  and  even  took 
part  with  her  brother  in  his 
favorite  music  and   dance.     In 

Artemis  of  the  i  j-/y>         j      t> 

ephesians.  one   respect  she    differed   from 

Apollo — she  was  the  goddess  of  the  chase,  and 
haunted  the  mountains  and  forests  accompanied 
by  her  hounds,  rejoicing  in  her  favorite  pursuit. 
As  Apollo  was  the  god  of  the  sun,  she  was 
the  goddess  of  the  moon.  This  may  have 
been  grafted   on   her  original   character.     "The 


T1.M1M.K  OF  ARTEMIS,  AT  EPHESUS. 

(One  of  the  Seven  Wonders.)  59 


60  DEPARTED  GODS. 

spread  of  vegetation  from  the  dew  under  a 
peaceful  moonlight  was  ascribed  to  her  influence." 
At  her  annual  festival  on  the  sixteenth  of  April, 
cakes  were  made  in  the  form  of  the  moon  when 
in  the  full,  and  stuck  over  with  lights.  Her  in- 
fluence was  especially  felt  near  springs,  streams, 
on  the  sea,  and  in  marshy  places.  Young  girls 
were  under  her  special  protection,  and  dedicated 
to  her  a  lock  of  their  hair  or  some  other  trifle. 
She  honored  youth,  innocence,  and  modesty,  and 
was  withal  a  beautiful  character. 

The  Asiatic  Artemis  was  quite  different. 
Orestes  is  said  to  have  brought  an  image  of  the 
goddess  from  the  Crimea  to  Sparta,  where  her 
worship  demanded  human  sacrifices.  These  sac- 
rifices were  commuted  by  Lycurgus,  but  this  sur- 
vival still  remained  in  the  flogging  of  youths  at 
her  altar.  The  Carians  and  the  Leleges  worshiped 
Artemis  in  the  form  of  an  image  which  was  be- 
lieved to  have  fallen  from  heaven.  The  wealth 
and  splendor  of  her  temple  at  Ephesus  is  cele- 
brated in  history.  She  was  the  nature  goddess, 
and  an  impersonation  of  fecundity  in  nature. 
When  we  study  her  history,  we  must  bear  in 
mind  this  double  character. 

Aphrodite  may  have  been  originally  an  Asiatic 
deity,  introduced  from  Phoenicia  through  Cyprus. 
She  was  the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty  ;  but  the 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  61 

love  was  not  pure,  noble,  and  divine,  but  the 
rather  sensual ;  and  so,  too,  the  beauty  was  phys- 
ical rather  than  intellectual  and  moral.  The 
Greek  was  drawn  to  this  goddess  and  fas- 
cinated by  her  charms,  and  yet  in  his  heart  de- 
spised her,  and  was  discontented  under  her  in- 
fluence. "  Silly  and  childish,  easily  tricked  and 
imposed  upon,  Aphrodite  is  mentally  contempti- 
ble, while  morally  she  is  odious.  Tyrannical  over 
the  weak,  cowardly  before  the  strong,  frail  her- 
self, and  the  persistent  storer  up  of  frailty  in 
others,  lazy,  deceitful,  treacherous,  selfish,  shrink- 
ing from  the  least  touch  of  pain,  she  repels  the 
moral  sentiment  with  a  force  almost  equal  to 
that  with  which  she  attracts  the  lower  animal 
nature."  * 

Her  usual  symbols  were  the  dove,  swan, 
dolphin,  hare,  goat,  and  tortoise.  In  Paphos  she 
was  worshiped  under  the  form  of  a  ball  or  pyr- 
amid surrounded  by  burning  torches.  "In  the 
best  days  of  art  every  charm  of  beauty  was  ex- 
hausted for  her  statues,"  culminating  in  the 
Aphrodite  at  Cnidus,  by  Praxiteles. 

Hestia  was  perhaps  the  latest  in  origin  of  the 

greater  gods.     She   presided   over   the  altar-fire 

and  all  sacrifices,  and  claimed  a  portion  of  every 

offering.     Her  sacred  fire  was  kept  always  burn- 

♦Rawlinson,  Tin-  Retigioai  of  the  Ancient  World,  p.  201. 
6 


62  DEPARTED  GODS. 

ing,  and  when  by  accident  it  was  extinguished, 
it  was  rekindled  by  friction  or  from  the  rays  of 
the  sun.  She  was  the  goddess  of  the  fireside, 
the  hearth,  and  the  home,  and  the  art  of  house- 
building was  ascribed  to  her.  She  protected 
suppliants  who  fled  to  her  hearth  for  refuge,  and 
preserved  the  purity,  sweetness,  peace,  and  joy 
of  the  home.  Modesty  and  virtue  were  under 
her  gracious  protection.  "  She  upheld  among 
the  Greeks  the  idea  of  virginal  purity  as  a  tran- 
scendental phase  of  life — a  moral  perfection 
whereto  the  best  and  purest  might  not  only  as- 
pire, but  attain,  as  the  result  of  earnest  en- 
deavor." 

Hestia  presided  over  not  only  the  domestic, 
but  also  the  city,  the  tribal,  and  the  national 
hearths ;  and  in  the  later  mystic  philosophy  this 
became  the  hearth  of  the  universe  and  the  eter- 
nal fire  at  the  center  of  the  world. 

The  magistrates  of  the  city  met  around  the 
common  hearth-fire,  and  there  the  sacred  rites 
that  sanctify  the  peace  of  city  life  were  per- 
formed. Since  the  hearth  was  the  home  of  this 
goddess,  she  possessed  few  special  temples.  In 
her  temple  in  Hermione  the  sacred  fire  was  her 
only  symbol.  She  may  have  had  another  temple 
at  Olympia. 

Demeter,  "  the  earth-mother,"  was  the  goddess 


6-1  DEPARTED  GODS. 

of  fertility.  She  was  a  universal  deity,  though 
more  especially  honored  in  certain  places.  The 
culture  of  cereals,  the  work  of  tillage,  and  the 
making  of  bread  the  Greeks  learned  from  this 
beneficent  and  bountiful  goddess.  At  the  Thes- 
mophoria,  a  festival  at  which  only  married  women 
were  present,  she  is  said  to  have  instituted  the 
laws  of  life,  especially  of  the  married  life  of 
women.  The  Eleusinian  mysteries,  with  their 
purifications,  sacrifices,  processions,  torches,  ath- 
letic games,  fastings,  solemn  oaths  of  secrecy, 
and  symbolic  rites,  wherein,  in  profound  symbol- 
ism, were  described  the  revivification  of  the  earth 
after  the  death  of  winter,  and  the  new  life  into 
which  the  soul  is  ushered  after  its  passage 
through  the  gateway  of  death,  were  celebrated 
at  Eleusis  in  her  honor.  The  myth  commem- 
orated in  this  festival  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting, and  celebrated  in  the  classics,  Per- 
sephone, her  daughter,  while  gathering  flowers  in 
the  fields  of  Enna,  in  Sicily,  is  caught  and  borne 
away  by  Hades,  to  become  his  queen  in  the  in- 
fernal regions.  Her  mother  seeks  her  disconso- 
late, the  earth  refuses  to  yield  her  increase,  and 
Zeus  is  compelled  to  permit  the  daughter  to  live 
half  the  year  on  the  earth. 

According   to   a   legend,   at   the   time    when 
Hades  was  carrying  off  Persephone,  a  swineherd, 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  65 

Eubuleus  by  name,  chanced  to  be  herding  his 
swine  on  the  very  spot,  and  the  whole  herd  van- 
ished down  the  chasm  which  received  the  god 
and  his  prize.  To  commemorate  this  event,  at 
the  celebration  of  the  Thesmophoria,  pigs,  branches 
of  pine,  and  cakes  of  symbolic  import  were  cast 
into  the  *  chasms  of  Demeter  and  Persephone." 
A  multitude  of  serpents  consumed  the  flesh  of 
the  pigs ;  but  at  the  end  of  the  year  certain 
women,  who  had  undergone  purification  for  three 
days,  descended  into  the  vaults,  and,  frightening 
the  serpents  away  with  the  clapping  of  their  hands, 
gathered  up  the  remains  and  placed  them  on  the 
altars.  Whoever  secured  any  of  the  decayed 
flesh,  and  sowed  it  in  the  field  with  his  grain, 
was  sure  of  a  good  crop. 

In  the  sanctuary  of  Demeter  and  the  Deities 
of  the  Lower  World,  at  Cnidus,  a  chamber  was 
discovered  which  contained  the  bones  of  pigs 
and  marble  images  of  pigs.* 

On  the  fourth  day  of  this  festival  was  ob- 
served the  ceremony  of  carrying  the  sacred 
basket  in  honor  of  the  goddess. 

"But  radiant  Hesper,  from  the  starry  skies, 
Beholds  the  sacred  basket  as  it  flies : 
Bright  Hesper  only  could  persuade  the  power 
To  quench  her  thirst,  in  that  unhappy  hour, 

•Frazer,  T hesmoptioria,  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  Vol. 
XXIII,  pp.  295-297. 


66  DEPARTED  GODS. 

When,  full  of  grief,  she  roam'd  from  place  to  place, 

Her  ravish'd  daughter's  latent  steps  to  trace. 

How  could  thy  tender  feet,  O  goddess!  bear 

The  painful  journey  to  the  western  sphere  ? 

How  couldst  thou  tread  black  ^Ethiop's  burning  climes, 

Or  that  fair  soil,  in  those  distressful  times, 

Where,  on  the  tree,  the  golden  apple  beams, 

Nor  eat,  nor  drink,  nor  bathe  in  cooling  streams  ? 

Hail,  sacred  power!     Preserve  this  happy  town 

In  peace  and  safetyr  concord  and  renown : 

Let  rich  increase  o'erspread  the  yellow  plain  ,• 

Feed  flocks  and  herds,  and  fill  the  ripening  grain: 

Let  wreaths  of  olive  still  our  brows  adorn, 

And  those  who  plow'd  the  field  shall  reap  the  corn."* 

Pausanius  describes  the  annual  festival  called 
Chthonia  as  celebrated  in  Hermione.  The  priests 
of  the  gods  and  all  the  town  authorities  lead  the 
procession,  and  the  women  and  the  men  follow. 
Boys,  clothed  in  white  and  garlanded  with  flow- 
ers of  hyacinth,  also  form  a  procession.  When 
they  reach  the  temple,  they  let  inside  the  sacred 
place  a  heifer,  and  the  doors  are  immediately 
shut.  Four  old  women  receive  the  victim,  and 
the  one  who  can  get  a  chance  cuts  the  throat 
with  a  sickle.  The  doors  are  then  opened,  and 
a  second,  third,  and  sometimes  even  a  fourth 
heifer  is  let  in,  and  slain  in  the  same  manner. 
On  whichever  side  the  first  heifer  falls,  all  fall 

*  Callimachus,  Hymn  to  Demeter,  Ty tier's  translation,  pp. 
408,  413. 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  67 

on  the  same  side.  The  special  object  of  their 
worship  no  one  has  ever  seen.  It  is  a  secret 
with  the  four  old  women. 

In  Phigalia,  Pausanius  sacrificed  to  Demeter 
after  the  manner  of  the  people  of  the  land.  The 
only  offerings  were  fruit,  honeycomb,  and  wool 
just  as  it  was  taken  from  the  sheep.  These  they 
lay  on  an  altar  in  front  of  her  cave,  and  pour  oil 
over  them  all* 

Initiation  into  the  Greek  mysteries — by 
which  we  now  mean  the  greater  mysteries : 
those  of  the  Cabiri,  the  Samothracian,  the  Dio- 
nysiac,  the  Mithraic,  the  Eleusinian,  and  possi- 
bly some  others — was  counted  the  highest  honor. 
The  privilege  was  granted  at  the  first  only  to 
such  of  the  priests  as  were  prepared  by  educa- 
tion and  quality,  and  those  fortunate  citizens 
who  were  to  enter  upon  some  important  office  of 
state.  The  benefits  were  of  the  largest  moral 
and  spiritual  significance.  The  doctrines  taught, 
either  by  word  or  by  symbol,  were  the  existence 
of  one  eternal  God,  the  immortality  of  the  soul 
in  some  form  of  existence,  and  the  future  moral 
judgment. 

In  an  ancient  hymn  the  priest  says  :  "  Go  on 
in  the  right  way,  and  contemplate  the  sole  Gov- 
ernor of  the  world.     He  is  One,  and  of  himself 

*  Pausanius,  Description  of  Greece,  ii,  35 ;  viii,  42. 


68  DEPARTED  GODS. 

alone,  and  to  that  one  all  things  owe  their 
being.  He  worketh  through  all,  was  never 
seen  by  mortal  eyes,  but  doth  himself  see 
every  one." 

Our  chief  sources  of  information  concerning 
these  mysteries  must  be  the,  early  Christian 
fathers — notably  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Eusebius,  whose  accounts  may  be  received  as 
reliable ;  Plutarch,  who  writes  as  a  philosophical 
historian;  and  Apuleius,  who  spins  out  tales 
most  romantic,  and  is  possibly  least  worthy  of 
credit. 

It  would  seem  that  the  mysteries  teach,  in  a 
manner  highly  dramatic,  the  purest  morality. 
The  candidate  passes  through  certain  stages  of 
progress  during  the  initiation,  by  which  are 
symbolized,  either  in  his  own  personal  experi- 
ence or  by  spectacular  display,  his  death,  judg- 
ment, and  resurrection  to  a  new  life.  The  life 
of  the  gods  in  whose  honor  the  mysteries  are 
celebrated  is  also  represented.  By  virtue  of 
the  sacred  rites  and  teachings  connected  with 
the  service,  and  the  impressions  wrought  upon 
his  mind  and  the  change  wrought  in  his  heart, 
he  may  be  happy  both  in  this  world  and  the 
world  to  come. 

So  much  concerning  these  mysteries  must 
forever  remain  concealed,  that  we  can  not  pro- 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  69 

nounce  with  confidence  as  to  the  details  either 
of  ritual  or  doctrine. 

We  may,  however,  offer  one  or  two  criticisms, 
which  seem  to  be  fatal  to  the  possibility  of  any 
lasting  influence  towards  the  regeneration  of 
society. 

The  mysteries  were  for  the  few.  At  a  later 
period,  indeed,  they  admitted  all  to  their  secrets; 
but,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  initiatory  serv- 
ice, only  the  few  could  understand  the  sacred 
meaning.  The  benefit  which  they  bestowed  upon 
the  great  mass  of  the  people  must  have  been 
exceedingly  slight.  That  their  influence  over 
the  morals  and  lives  of  the  initiated  was  health- 
ful, while  the  mysteries  themselves  retained  their 
purity,  we  gladly  admit;  but  such  influence  was 
not,  could  not  be,  abiding.  Both  the  greater  and 
the  lesser  mysteries  lost  their  original  purity. 
They  afforded  the  opportunity  for  hidden  crimes. 
They  concealed  uncleanness.  Some  of  these 
festivals  may  have  been  obscene  from  the  begin- 
ning; others  introduced  or  fostered,  or  at  least 
allowed  and  protected,  wickedness.  The  Eleu- 
sinian  mysteries  maintained  their  purity  long- 
est, but  even  this  service  broke  down  at  the  last. 

Important  among  the  secondary  gods  of  Greece 

was  Dionysus,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Semele,  the 

god  of  the  vine  and  of  drunkenness.     He  intro- 

7 


70  DEPARTED  GODS. 

duced  the  vine  in  Greece,  taught  its  culture,  and 
discovered  the  exhilarating  effects  of  wine.  His 
worship,  whose  center  was  Thebes  in  Boeotia, 
was  connected  with  drunken  orgies,  furious  and 
extravagant  revelry,  exciting  music,  wild  dances, 
shrieks,  cries,  yells,  ecstatic  ravings,  and  some- 
times even  bloodshed.  This  god  delivered  from 
grief,  and  furnished  the  only  medicine  for 
troubles.  The  frantic  ravings  of  the  drunken 
devotee  were  received  as  indications  of  special 
inspiration,  and  his  boisterous,  senseless,  and 
mad  utterances  were  recognized  as  prophetic. 
The  god  filled  the  heart  with  courage,  and  the 
body  with  strength.  Similar  seems  to  have  been 
the  effect  of  the  gases  which  rose  from  pro- 
phetic springs,  or  from  crevices  of  the  earth  in 
prophetic  caves — its  intoxication  leading  to  re- 
sponses which  were  considered  oracular,  and  the 
interpretation  of  which  called  for  special  qualifi- 
cations. 

The  Bacchse  believed  in  the  much-abused 
principle  that  to  the  pure  all  things  are  pure, 
and  this  gave  license  to  all  uncleanness. 

"And  let  every  one  with  pure  lips  speak  that 
which  is  propitious,  for  now  will  I,  according  to 
custom,  celebrate  with  hymns  the  god  Bacchus. 
Blessed  is  he  who,  being  favored,  knows  the 
mysteries  of  the  gods,  keeps  his  life   pure   and 


OODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  71 

his  soul  initiated  into  the  Bacchic  rites,  and 
serves  Bacchus,  dancing  upon  the  mountains  with 
holy  purifications,  reverencing  the  mysteries  of 
the  mighty  mother  Cybele,  brandishing  the  thyr- 
sus, and  crowned  with  ivy !"  * 

Dionysus  frequently  met  with  opposition  in 
his  efforts  to  extend  the  knowledge  and  use  of 
the  vine.  Lycurgus,  a  Thracian  king,  was  struck 
blind  by  Zeus  for  his  rash  hostility.  Frantic  with 
rage,  he  slew  his  own  son,  mistaking  him  for  a 
vine.  According  to  another  tradition,  Ambrosia, 
in  the  form  of  a  vine,  embraced  Lycurgus,  and 
he  perished  in  the  deadly  grasp.  Pentheus,  a 
king  of  Thebes,  opposed  the  orgiastic  ceremonies 
introduced  among  the  women,  and  while  watch- 
ing the  proceedings  was  mistaken  for  an  animal 
by  his  own  mother  and  her  sisters,  who,  filled 
with  Bacchic  fury,  seized  him,  and  tore  him  in 
pieces.  At  Orchomenus,  the  three  daughters  of 
Minyas  refused  to  join  in  the  orgies,  and  were 
turned  into  birds.  In  later  times,  at  the  festival 
of  the  Agrionia,  the  priests  pursued  the  women 
of  the  race  of  Minyas,  and  slew  with  the  sword 
any  whom  they  could  overtake.  Even  when 
Dionysus  was  propitiously  received,  misfortune 
came  to  those  who  showed  him  favor.  Icarius,  a 
king  of  Attica,  was  friendly  to  him,  and  was  in- 

*  Euripides,  The  Bacch®. 


72  DEPARTED  GODS. 

• 

structed  in  the  mysteries  of  wine-making;  but 
revealing  the  secret  to  the  herdsmen  and  laborers, 
they  became  intoxicated,  and  slew  him,  throwing 
his  body  into  a  well,  or  burying  it  under  a  tree. 
His  daughter  Erigone,  finding  the  spot,  hung  her- 
self in  grief. 

There  were  many  Dionysiac  festivals. 

"Crowds  of  females,  clothed  in  fawn-skins, 
and  bearing  the  sacred  thyrsus,  flocked  to  the 
solitudes  of  Parnassus  or  Cithseron  or  Taygetus, 
during  the  consecrated  triennial  period,  passed 
the  night  there  with  torches,  and  abandoned 
themselves  to  demonstrations  of  frantic  excite- 
ment, with  dancing,  and  clamorous  invocation  of 
the  god.  The  men  yielded  to  a  similar  impulse, 
with  noisy  revels  in  the  streets,  sounding  the 
cymbal  and  tambourine,  and  carrying  the  image 
of  the  god  in  procession."*  Worship  was  thought 
to  be  most  perfect  when  accompanied  with  the 
most  thorough  drunkenness. 

The  active  worship  of  this  god  extended 
widely  in  Asia.  In  Phrygia  he  was  connected 
with  Cybele,  and  followed  by  Pan,  Silenus, 
Satyrs,  and  Centaurs.  The  decay  of  vegetation 
was  represented  as  Dionysus  slain,  and  with  this 
meaning  he  was  connected  with  the  mysteries  of 
Eleusis.     He  symbolized  also  the  productiveness 

*Grote,  History  of  Greece,  Vol.  I,  p.  26. 


GODS  AND  HALF-HODS.  73 

of  nature.  His  chief  symbols,  besides  the  phal- 
lus, were  the  bull,  the  panther,  the  ass,  and  the 
goat;  and  his  insignia  were  the  ivy-wreath,  the 
thyrsus,  the  drinking-cup,  and  sometimes  the 
horn  of  a  bull,  which  he  wore  on  his  forehead. 
Sometimes  his  effigy  looks  out  of  a  bush  or  low 
tree.  Fruit-growers  set  up  his  image  in  their 
orchards  as  a  natural  tree-stump.  The  Corinth- 
ians made  two  images  out  of  a  particular  pine- 
tree,  and  gave  them  red  faces  and  gilt  bodies. 
The  image  of  Dionysus  was  often  nothing  more 
than  an  upright  post,  with  leafy  boughs  project- 
ing from  the  head  and  body.  The  only  resem- 
blance to  the  human  figure  was  a  bearded  mask 
to  represent  the  head.  There  were  no  arms,  but 
the  object  was  draped  in  a  mantle.  The  religion 
of  Greece  suffered  greatly  from  this  most  degrad- 
ing and  licentious  worship. 

Hades,  "the  unseen,"  was  the  ruler  of  the 
infernal  realm.  The  "house  of  Hades"  was  a 
dark  abode,  deep  down  in  the  earth,  and  those 
who  would  invoke  him,  rapped  on  the  ground  to 
attract  his  attention.  Another  view  placed  his 
realm  in  the  far  West,  beyond  the  ocean.  He 
\v;is  a  shadowy  deity,  little  worshiped  anywhere. 
Pluto,  the  god  of  wealth,  usurped  his  place  to 
some  extent,  but  he  ever  maintained  his  position 
in  poetry.     His  wife,  Proserpine,  whom  he   ab- 


74  DEPARTED  GODS. 

ducted  from  the  earth — pure,  chaste,  and  kindly, 
for  one  in  her  unenviable  position — was  queen 
of  the  dead.  Her  votaries  abstained  from 
beans,  pomegranates,  apples,  fish,  and  domestic 
fowls. 

Hecate  was  the  goddess  of  magic,  and  was 
closely  connected  with  Artemis.  Her  worship 
flourished  especially  among  the  wild  tribes  of 
Samothrace,  Thessaly,  and  elsewhere.  She  was 
a  moon-goddess,  and  magic  rites  were  performed 
by  the  light  of  the  moon.  She  lighted  wander- 
ers on  their  way  by  night,  and  was  the  patroness 
of  roads.  Pillars,  called  Hecatsea,  stood  at 
cross-roads  and  door-ways,  especially  in  Athens. 
Hecate  was  also  the  goddess  of  fertility,  wealth, 
and  power.  Dogs,  honey,  and  black  ewe-lambs 
were  presented  to  her  as  offerings.  She  was 
represented  in  triple  form,  and  her  six  hands 
held  torches,  with  sometimes  a  snake,  a  whip,  a 
dagger,  or  a  key.     Dogs  were  often  at  her  side. 

zEolus  was  the  god  of  the  winds,  which  he 
confined  in  a  vast  cavern,  or  sent  forth  at 
his  will. 

"Here  iEolus,  in  cavern  vast, 
With  bolt  and  barrier  fetters  fast 
Rebellious  storm  and  howling  blast. 
They,  with  the  rock's  reverberant  roar, 
Chafe,  blustering  round  their  prison  door; 


GODS  AND  HALF-GODS.  75 

He,  throned  on  high,  the  scepter  sways, 
Controls  their  moods,  their  wrath  allays. 
Break  but  that  scepter,  sea  and  land, 

And  heaven's  ethereal  deep, 
Before  them  they  would  whirl  like  sand, 

And  through  the  void  air  sweep."* 

He  dwelt  in  an  ^Eolian  Island,  which  floated 
on  the  sea,  and  was  surrounded  by  an  impreg- 
nable brazen  wall ;  and  up  to  this  wall  ran  a 
smooth  rock.  He  has  six  daughters,  whom  he 
gives  in  marriage  to  his  six  sons.  These  signify 
the  twelve  winds.  They  always  banquet  near 
their  dear  father  and  good  mother.  The  sweet- 
odored  dwelling  is  charmed  with  musical  sounds 
during  the  day,  but  at  night  all  sleep  on  beds  of 
richest  tapestry. 

Ulysses  during  his  wanderings  visited  this 
god,  and  was  entertained  for  a  month.  When  at 
length  he  asked  for  permission  to  depart,  the 
god  prepared  for  him  an  escort.  Having  slain 
an  ox  nine  years  old,  he  gave  the  much-traveled 
wanderer  the  bladder,  in  which  he  bound  the  ways 
of  the  blustering  winds,  that  they  might  not  es- 
cape and  make  the  voyage  one  of  danger.  He 
bound  them  in  the  hollow  ship  with  a  shining 
silver  rope,  and  "not  even  a  little  breath  might 
escape."  But  when  his  companions,  thinking  to 
secure  treasures,  cut  the  bag  open,  the  winds  es- 

*  Virgil,  The  /Eneid,  Conington's  Translation,  i,  52-69. 


76  DEPARTED  GODS. 

caped,  and  Ulysses  was  driven  back  to  the  home 
of  iEolus,  who,  however,  spurned  him  away  as 
one  hated  of  the  gods. 

Nereus,  the  old  man  of  the  sea — "  men  call 
him  old  because  he  is  unerring  as  well  as  mild; 
neither  doth  he  forget  the  laws,  but  knoweth 
just  and  gentle  purposes  " — trusty  and  truthful, 
was  friendly  to  men,  and  full  of  wisdom.  His  fifty 
daughters,  who  presented  most  valuable  gifts  to 
men,  were  called  Nereids,  and  were  personifica- 
tions of  the  quiet,  peaceful,  and  propitious  sea. 

Proteus  was  another  god  of  the  sea,  full  of 
wisdom  and  knowledge,  which,  however,  he  would 
not  impart  save  under  compulsion.  At  noonday, 
while  he  was  sleeping  in  a  cave  by  the  sea,  he 
could  be  surprised,  caught,  bound,  and  forced  to 
answer  any  questions  which  the  inquirer  wished 
to  propose,  though  he  always  tried  to  escape  by 
assuming  rapidly,  one  after  the  other,  a  multitude 
of  forms.  He  was  the  subject  of  Poseidon,  and 
shepherded  the  droves  of  fish  beneath  the  bil- 
lows. 

Themis  was  the  personification  of  traditional 
custom.  Homer  and  others  made  her  a  goddess. 
By  command  of  Zeus,  she  calls  the  gods  to  an 
assembly,  and  summons  or  disperses  assemblies 
of  men.  She  possessed  several  temples  and 
altars. 


III. 

NYMPHS    AND    MONSTERS:    PRIESTS    AND 
ORACLES. 

THE  Greeks  peopled  all  nature  —  woods, 
springs,  rivers,  hills,  mountains,  meadows, 
caves,  ocean — with  nymphs.  These  strange  be- 
ings sometimes  carried  away  the  souls  of  men  to 
dwell  with  them,  sometimes  formed  peaceful 
unions  with  men,  and  sometimes  took  complete 
possession  of  both  soul  and  body.  In  such  cases 
as  the  last,  the  possessed  person  lost  his  own 
wit  to  be  sure,  but  thereby  gained  a  superior  wis- 
dom. Nymphs  were  worshiped  especially  by  the 
rural  populations  upon  whom  they  possessed  a 
strong  hold. 

The  nymphs  of  rivers  and  fountains  were 
called  Naiads ;  those  of  the  sea  were  Nereids  and 
Oceanides  ;  those  of  the  forests,  groves,  and  trees, 
Dryads  and  Hamadryads,  and  those  of  the  mount- 
ains, Oreads. 

The  Muses  were  originally  a  variety  of 
nymphs.  They  were  the  daughters  of  Zeus,  and 
presided  over  the  nine  principal  departments  of 
letters.  Upon  whomsoever  they  look  at  his  birth, 
"  on  the  tongue  of  such  a  one  they  shed  a  hon- 

77 


78  DEPARTED  GODS. 

eyed  dew,  and  from  his  lips  drop  gentle  words ; 

so  then  the  peoples  all  look  to  him  as  he  decideth 

questions  of  law  with  righteous  judgments  ;  and 

he  speaketh  counsels  unerringly." 

The  Oceanides  are  daughters  of  Oceanus  and 

Tethys,  and  are  three  thousand  in  number. 

"  Three  thousand  nymphs 
Of  oceanic  line,  in  beauty  tread 
With  ample  step,  and,  far  and  wide  dispersed, 
Haunt  the  green  earth  and  azure  depths  of  lakes, 
A  blooming  race  of  glorious  goddesses."*    . 

The  Ocean-nymphs,  beholding  the  misery  in- 
flicted on  Prometheus  by  the  power  of  Zeus,  their 
hearts  moved  to  pity  at  the  sight  of  his  awful 
sufferings,  cry  the  prayer : 

"May  never  the  all-ruling 
Zeus  set  his  rival  power 

Against  my  thoughts; 
Nor  may  I  ever  fail 
The  gods,  with  holy  feasts 
Of  sacrifices,  drawing  near, 
Beside  the  ceaseless  stream 

Of  father  Ocean  : 
Nor  may  I  err  in  words; 
But  this  abide  with  me, 

And  never  fade  away."f 

Galatea  was  a  sea-nymph,  the  daughter  of 
Nereus  and   Doris.     Most  unsuitably,  as  so  fre- 


*Hesiod,  The  Theogony— Elton's  Translation,  p.  300. 
tiEsehylus,  Prometheus,  526-535. 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  79 

quently  happens  in  Greek  story,  Polyphemus,  the 
Cyclops,  celebrated  in  Homeric  verse,  falls  in  love 
with  the  beautiful  nymph.  His  love,  however, 
meets  with  no  return.  Galatea  overhears  from 
afar  the  words  of  the  monster  beseeching  her 
love.  He  praises  her  beauty.  She  is  fairer  than 
the  leaf  of  the  snow-white  privet,  more  blooming 
than  the  meadows,  more  slender  than  the  tall 
alder,  brighter  than  glass,  more  wanton  than  the 
tender  kid,  smoother  than  the  shells  worn  by  the 
continual  floods,  more  pleasing  than  the  winter's 
sun  or  the  summer's  shade,  more  beauteous  than 
the  apple,  more  sightly  than  the  lofty  plane-tree, 
clearer  than  ice,  sweeter  than  the  ripened  grape, 
softer  than  the  down  of  the  swan,  and  more  re- 
freshing than  curdled  milk.  He  calls  upon  her 
to  raise  her  beauteous  head  out  of  the  azure  sea, 
and  not  to  refuse  his  presents.* 

In  the  Homeric  hymn  to  Aphrodite,  we  have 
a  full  description  of  the  Wood-nymphs.  Speak- 
ing of  her  son,  the  goddess  says  : 

"But  him,  when  first  he  sees  the  sun's  clear  light, 
The  nymphs  shall  rear,  the  mountain-haunting  nymphs, 
Deep-bosomed,  who  on  this  mountain  great 
And  holy  dwell,  who  neither  goddesses 
Nor  women  are.     Their  life  is  long;  they  eat 
Ambrosial  food,  and  with  the  Deathless  frame 
The  Beauteous  dance.     With  them,  in  the  recess 

•Ovid,  Metamorphoses,  of.  Riley's  Translation,  pp.  471,  472. 


80  DEPARTED  GODS 

Of  lovely  caves,  well-spying  Argos-slayer 
And  the  Sileni  mix  in  love.     Straight  pines, 
Or  oaks  high-headed,  spring  with  them  upon 
The  earth  man-feeding,  soon  as  they  are  born ; 
Trees  fair  and  flourishing,   on  the  high  hills 
Lofty  they  stand ;  the  Deathless'  sacred  grove 
Men  call  them,  and  with  iron  never  cut. 
But  when  the  fate  of  death  is  drawing  near, 
First  wither  on  the  earth  the  beauteous  trees, 
The  bark  around  them  wastes,  the  branches  fall, 
And  the  nymph's  soul  at  the  same  moment  leaves 
The  sun's  fair  light." 

In  the  Argonautics  of  Apollonius  Rhodius, 
Phineus  explains  the  cause  of  the  poverty  of 
Persebius : 

"But  he  was  paying  the  penalty  laid  on 
His  father's  crime ;  for  one  time,  cutting  trees 
Alone  among  the  hills,  he  spurned  the  prayer 
Of  the  Hamadryas   nymph,  who,  weeping  sore, 
With  earnest  words  besought  him  not  to  cut 
The  trunk  of  an  oak-tree,  which,  with  herself 
Coeval,  had  endured  for  many  a  year; 
But,  in  the  pride  of  youth,  he  foolishly 
Cut  it ;  and  to  him  and  to  his  race  the  nymph 
Gave  ever  after  a  lot  profitless." 

Charon,  of  Lampsacus,  relates  that  Rhoecus  or- 
dered his  slaves  to  prop  up  an  oak  which  was 
ready  to  fall,  and  thereby  saved  the  life  of  the 
nymph.  In  gratitude  she  desired  him  to  ask 
any  reward,  and  she  would  bestow  upon  him  the 
wished-for  boon.      He  besought  her  love,  and  it 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  81 

was  granted.  In  the  course  of  time  he  made  a 
rough  reply  to  her  messenger,  at  which  she  be- 
came so  incensed  that  she  deprived  him  of  sight. 
Calypso,  the  beautiful  nymph  who  dwelt  in 
an  island,  retained  Odysseus  seven  years  in  her 
fair  abode.  The  divine  messenger  from  Zeus  vis- 
ited her,  and  commanded  her  to  release  the  cap- 
tive. A  large  fire  was  burning  on  the  hearth, 
and  at  a  distance  the  smell  of  cedar  and  frankin- 
cense, which  were  burning,  shed  odor  through 
the  island.  The  nymph  was  singing  with  beau- 
tiful voice  while  she  wove  with  a  golden  shuttle. 
But  a  flourishing  grove  of  alder,  poplar,  and 
sweet-smelling  cypress,  had  sprung  up  and  sur- 
rounded her  grot,  wherein  birds  with  spreading 
wings,  owls,  hawks,  and  wide-tongued  crows — in- 
terested in  maritine  employments — slept.  The 
vine  in  the  strength  of  its  prime  grew  about  the 
hollow  grot,  loaded  with  clusters  of  grapes.  Four 
fountains  of  clear  water  flowed  in  different  di- 
rections, and  around  all  were  soft  meadows  of 
violets  and  parsley.  There  was  every  delight 
to  please  the  eye,  charm  the  ear,  and  captivate 
the  heart.  Even  an  immortal,  were  he  to  visit 
this  beautiful  grot  and  its  surroundings,  when  he 
gazed  upon  its  charm,  would  be  filled  with  delight 
at  the  prospect.  * 

•Homer,  The  Odysseus,  v,  69-74. 


82  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Calypso,  divine  one  of  the  goddesses,  sat  on 
a  shining,  brilliant  throne,  and  entertained  Hermes 
with  ambrosia  and  ruby  nectar.  The  gift  of  im- 
mortality was  at  her  disposal.  She  offered  this 
gift  to  Odysseus,  with  the  hope  of  gaining  his  per- 
manent regard. 

Gladstone  finds  in  Homer's  nymphs  of  Ithaca 
evidences  of  Phoenician  influence.  They  were 
the  objects  of  particular  popular  worship.  Ith- 
akos  and  his  brothers  constructed  their  grove 
and  fountain  near  the  city,  and  from  thence  the 
city  was  supplied  with  water.  Here  also  was 
an  altar,  which  received  the  offerings  of  those 
who  chanced  to  pass  the  spot.  Near  the  landing- 
place  of  Odysseus  was  a  cave,  sacred  to  the 
nymphs,  where  the  hero  had  formerly  wor- 
shiped. This  landing-place  seems  to  have  been 
named  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  hence  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  worship  had  a  Phoenician  char- 
acter. These  Ithacan  nymphs  are  water-nymphs. 
Circe  is  a  Phoenician  personage,  and  her  four 
servants  are  born  of  the  fountains,  groves,  and 
consecrated  rivers.  The  grove  included  the 
fountain  within.  Nymphs  were  also  worshiped 
in  Trinacrie,  the  island  of  the  sun.  This  also 
would  suggest  an  Eastern  character. 

These  nymphs  of  Ithaca  are  associated  with 
Hermes.    Over  the  city  rises  the  hill  of  Hermes. 


NYMPBS  AND  MONSTERS.  83 

When  the  pious  Eumaios  banqueted  on  the 
slaughtered  pig,  he  cut  it  into  seven  portions, 
and  gave  one  of  these  portions  to  the  nymphs 
and  Hermes.  Now  Hermes  is  the  son  of  Maia. 
Homer  affords  no  direct  evidence  of  her  extrac- 
tion, but  all  Greek  tradition  places  it  within  the 
Phoenician  circle.  In  Scherie,  Hermes  was  the 
god  to  whom  was  offered  the  evening  libation, 
and  Scherie  is  clearly  Phoenician.  Poseidon 
seems  to  have  been  its  presiding  deity.  Hermes, 
in  the  Odysseus,  replaces  Iris  as  the  messenger 
of  the  gods.  Was  this  because  of  her  Phoenician 
character?  Iris  is  distinctively  Hellenic,  and 
may  have  been  a  creation  of  Homer.  It  may 
also  be  that,  because  of  his  Phoenician  character, 
he  became  the  guide  and  guardian  of  Odysseus 
in  his  eastern  wanderings.  Calypso  is  a  Phoe- 
nician personage,  and  Hermes  seems  to  have 
been  in  general  communication  with  this  nymph. 
His  office  as  conductor  of  the  dead  supplies  addi- 
tional evidence  to  the  same  effect.  Such  are  the 
several  points  made  by  Gladstone  in  his  most 
excellent  article  on  "  Phoenician  Affinities  of 
Ithaca."  * 

We  are  constantly  meeting  with   Phoenician 

*  Gladstone,  The  Nineteenth  Century,  August,  1889,  pp.  284, 
285;  cf.  Homer,  The  Odysseus,  xvii,  304-311;  xiii,  103,  347, 
349 ;  xiii,  104,  et  alibi;  xvii,  240 ;  x,  348-351 ;  xvi,  470;  xiv,  435 
vii,  13(5-138;  vi,  266;  xii,  390. 


84  DEPARTED  GODS. 

and  other  foreign  influences  in  the  religion  of 
the  Greeks ;  and  in  the  early  religion  it  is  fre- 
quently a  difficult  task  to  determine  how  much 
is  imported  and  how  much  indigenous.  Glad- 
stone is  a  recognized  master  in  Homeric  studies, 
and,  though  not  always  reliable,  has  done  much 
toward  the  .elucidation  of  old  Greek  life  and  the 
solution  of  hard  problems. 

The  nymph  Arethusa  was  changed  by  Artemis 
into  a  fountain,  that  she  might  escape  the  ardent 
pursuit  of  the  river-god  Alpheus,  who  aspired  to 
her  hand.  But  the  god,  as  the  story  goes,  was 
not  frustrated,  but  passed  beneath  the  sea  from 
Peloponnesus  to  the  island  Ortygia,  whither  his 
beloved  had  taken  refuge.  Milton,  in  his. "Ar- 
cades," alludes  to  the  story : 

"That  renowned  flood,  so  often  sung, 
Divine  Alpheus,  who  by  sacred  sluice 
Stole  under  seas  to  meet  his  Arethuse." 

The  story  is  celebrated  in  mythology,  and  de- 
serves its  popularity.  Perhaps  we  can  do  no 
better  than  to  let  Arethusa  relate  her  own  story 
as  she  told  it  to  Ceres,  as  preserved  in  Ovid : 

"I  was  one  of  the  nymphs  which  exist  in 
Achaia ;  nor  did  any  one  more  eagerly  skim  along 
the  glades  than  myself,  nor  with  more  industry 
set  the  nets.  But  though  the  reputation  for 
beauty  was  never  sought  by  me,  although,  too, 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  85 

I  was  of  robust  make ;  still  I  had  the  name  of 
being  beautiful.  But  my  appearance,  when  so 
much  commended,  did  not  please  me ;  and  I, 
like  a  country  lass,  blushed  at  those  endowments 
of  person  in  which  other  females  are  wont  to 
take  a  pride,  and  I  deemed  it  a  crime  to  please. 
I  remember  I  was  returning  weary  from  the 
Stymphalian  wood.  The  weather  was  hot,  and 
my  toil  had  redoubled  the  intense  heat.  I  found 
a  stream  gliding  on  without  any  eddies,  without 
any  noise,  and  clear  to  the  bottom,  through  which 
every  pebble,  at  so  great  a  depth,  might  be 
counted,  and  which  you  could  hardly  suppose  to 
be  in  motion.  The  hoary  willows  and  poplars, 
nourished  by  the  water,  furnished  a  shade,  spon- 
taneously produced,  along  the  shelving  banks." 

The  nymph,  having  disrobed,  was  enjoying  a 
refreshing  bath  in  the  cooling  waters  of  the 
beautiful  stream,  when  the  god,  moved  with  pas- 
sion, sought  her  love.  She  fled  over  fields  and 
mountains,  until  wearied  with  the  exertion  and 
nearly  overtaken,  when  she  cried  to  Artemis  for 
help.  "  The  goddess  was  moved,  and,  taking  one 
of  the  dense  clouds,  she  threw  it  over  me.  The 
river  looked  about  for  me,  concealed  in  the  dark- 
ness, and,  in  his  ignorance,  sought  about  the  en- 
circling cloud;  and  twice  unconsciously  did  he 
go  around  the  place  where  the  goddess  had  con- 


86  DEPARTED  OODS. 

cealed  me,  and  twice  did  he  cry,  '  Ho,  Arethusa !' 
What,  then,  were  my  feelings,  in  my  wretched- 
ness? .  .  .  Yet  he  does  not  depart;  for  no 
further  does  he  trace  any  prints  of  my  feet. 
He  watches  the  cloud  and  the  spot.  A  cold  per- 
spiration takes  possession  of  my  limbs,  thus  be- 
sieged, and  azure-colored  drops  distill  from  all  my 
body.  ...  I  was  changed  into  a  stream.  But 
still  the  river  recognized  the  waters,  the  objects 
of  his  love ;  and,  having  laid  aside  the  shape  of 
a  mortal,  which  he  had  assumed,  he  was  changed 
into  his  waters,  that  he  might  mingle  with  me. 
Thereupon  the  Delian  goddess  cleaved  the  ground. 
Sinking,  I  was  carried  through  dark  caverns  to 
Ortygia,  which,  being  dear  to  me  from  the  sur- 
name of  my  own  goddess,  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce me  to  the  upper  air."* 

The  stories  of  the  loves  of  the  nymphs  with 
gods  and  men  form  many  charming  pictures, 
though  often  at  the  expense  of  the  reputation  of 
both  for  morality  and  conjugal  fidelity.  They 
were  frequently  changed  into  the  forms  of  vari- 
ous objects,  both  animate  and  inanimate.  They 
were  generally  mild  in  disposition  and  friendly 
to  men,  but  it  was  not  well  to  fall  into  their 
power. 

*Ovid,  The  Metamorphoses,  Riley's  Translation,  Vol.  HI, 
pp.  184,  185 ;  cf.  Virgil,  /Eneid,  694 ;  Achilles  Tatius,  I. 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  87 

The  Charites  were  goddesses,  three  in  num- 
ber, whose  early  names  were  unknown.  The 
chief  seat  of  their  worship  was  Orchomenus. 
Stones,  believed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  were 
their  symbols,  and  were  preserved  in  their  tem- 
ples. Charis  is  an  epithet  of  "  the  light-illumined 
clouds  which  seem  to  escort  the  dawn;"  and  the 
goddess  Charis  was  the  goddess  of  early  fresh 
and  vigorous  life.  Like  Aphrodite,  she  resem- 
bled Persephone;  and,  like  Hebe,  she  was  often 
associated  with  Hera.  In  later  art  the  Graces, 
or  Charites,  are  often  represented  holding  ears 
of  corn  in  their  hands.  In  Sparta  and  Athens 
there  were  two  Charites ;  but  generally  in  Greek 
mythology  they  became  three  in  number.  Their 
worship  was  celebrated  with  secret  rites.  They 
became,  in  later  development,  the  impersonation 
of  grace  and  cheerfulness,  both  in  nature  and  in 
moral  life. 

The  Erinnyes,  or  Furies,  were  the  stern  aven- 
gers of  iniquity,  whose  pity  the  people  tried  to 
win  by  complimenting  them  with  the  name  Eu- 
menides,  or  "merciful  beings."  They  were  three 
in  number,  and  when  they  acquired  names  these 
names  meant  Hatred,  Jealousy,  and  Revenge. 

But  we  can  not  speak  of  the  many  divinities 
of  the  second  rank,  though  it  were  a  pleasant 
task   to   recall  their  characters,  adventures,  and 


88  DEPARTED  GODS. 

worship.  We  must  also  omit  a  multitude  of  di- 
vinities of  a  still  lower  rank.  They  act  as  at- 
tendants upon  the  great  gods.  Many  others  are 
mere  shadowy  forms,  and  little  more  than  per- 
sonifications of  phases,  acts,  and  circumstances 
in  human  life,  qualities  of  the  mind,  attributes 
of  the  body,  and  facts  of  nature. 

Several  of  the  attendants  of  the  gods  are 
beautiful  characters,  and  patterns  of  grace  and 
fidelity — full  of  sunshine  and  good  cheer.  Iris 
is  the  messenger  of  Zeus.  She  is  called  golden- 
winged  and  rosy-armed,  and  often  carries  the 
herald's  staff.  This  goddess  is  the  personifica- 
tion of  the  rainbow,  which  unites  heaven  and 
earth.  The  Latin  poet  has  retained  her  Greek 
character : 

-    "  So,  down  from  heaven  fair  Iris  flies, 

On  saffron  wings  irapearl'd  with  dew, 

That  flash  against  the  sunlit  skies 
Full  many  a  varied  hue ; 

Then  stands  at  Dido's  head,  and  cries: 
1  This  lock  to  Dis  I  bear  away, 
And  free  you  from  your  load  of  clay !' 
So  shears  the  lock — the  vital  heats 
Disperse,  and  breath  in  air  retreats."* 

Kratos  and  Bia  are  servants  of  Hephaestus; 
and  the  Horse,  who,  with  the  Charites,  work  the 
garments  of  Aphrodite  with  flowers  which  retain 

*  Virgil,  The  .Eneid,  iv,  700-705. 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  89 

the  fragrance  of  nature,  are  the  attendants  of 
this  goddess  of  love. 

Boreas  and  the  other  winds  are  the  servants 
of  iEolus.  Boreas,  the  north  wind,  is  rough  and 
powerful.  He  carried  off  Oreithyia,  the  beauti- 
ful daughter  of  Erechtheus,  king  of  Athens,  and 
made  her  queen  of  the  winds.  They  dwelt  on 
Mount  Hsemus,  in  Thrace.  He  had  an  altar 
near  Ilissus,  and  a  festival  was  held  in  his 
honor. 

Hebe  is  the  cup-bearer  of  the  gods,  and,  like 
Aphrodite,  is  called  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
gods.  In  Phlius  she  was  worshiped  in  a  temple 
on  the  citadel  to  which  the  right  of  asylum  was 
attached.  She  was  the  personification  of  the 
blooming  freshness  and  youth  of  nature,  and 
again  of  the  eternal  youth  which  belongs  to  the 
gods.  At  the  apotheosis  of  Heracles,  when  he 
was  reconciled  to  Hera,  he  received  Hebe  as 
his  wife,  and  they  were  worshiped  together  in 
Athens. 

Greek  mythology  is  full  of  monstrous  births — 
the  Cyclopes,  the  Harpies,  the  Minotaur,  the 
Gorgons,  the  Nemean  Lion,  the  Lernoean  Hydra, 
the  Dragon  of  the  Hesperides,  the  Centaurs, 
Echidna,  Chimsera,  Cerberus  the  Dog  of  Hades, 
Typhosus,  and  the  like.  Classic  story  has  made 
their  names  familiar. 


90 


DEPARTED  GODS. 


Chimsera  is  a  monster  "breathing  resistless 
fire,  fierce  and  huge,  fleet-footed,  as  well  as  strong. 
This  monster  had  three  heads — one  indeed  of  a 
grim-visaged  lion,  one  of  a  goat,  and  another  of 
a  serpent — a  fierce  dragon;  in  front  a  lion,  a 
dragon  behind,  and  in  the  midst  a  goat — breath- 
ing forth  the  dread  strength  of  burning  fire." 

Typhosus  is  the  youngest  son  of  Tartarus 
and   Gsea.     "  Whose   hands,  indeed,  are  apt  for 

deeds  on  the  score  of 
strength,  and  untiring 
the  feet  of  the  strong 
god;  and  from  his 
shoulders  there  were 
a  hundred  heads  of  a 
serpent,  a  fierce  dragon, 
playing  with  dusky 
tongues,  and  from  the 
eyes  in  his  wondrous 
heads  fire  sparkled  beneath  the  brows;  whilst 
from  all  his  heads  fire  was  gleaming,  as  he  looked 
keenly.  In  all  his  terrible  heads,  too,  were  voices, 
sending  forth  every  kind  of  sound  ineffable.  For 
one  while,  indeed,  they  would  utter  sounds  so  as 
for  the  gods  to  understand ;  and  at  another  time 
again  the  voice  of  a  loud-bellowing  bull,  un- 
tamable in  force,  and  proud  in  utterance ;  at  an- 
other time,  again,  that  of  a  lion,  possessing  a 


Heracles  Slaying  the 
L/EHN-siAN  Hydra. 


THESEUS  AND  THE  MINOTAUR. 


9' 


92  DEPARTED  GODS. 

daring  spirit;  at  another,  yet  again,  they  would 
sound  like  to  whelps,  wondrous  to  hear;  and  at 
another,  he  would  hiss,  and  the  lofty  mountains 
resound.  And,  in  sooth,  then  would  there  have 
been  done  a  deed  past  remedy,  and  he,  even  he, 
would  have  reigned  over  mortals  and  immortals, 
unless,  I  wot,  the  sire  of  gods  and  men  had 
quickly  observed  him."  Zeus  conquered  Ty- 
phosus, and  hurled  him  into  wide  Tartarus.* 

The  belief  in  these  monstrous  forms — we  can 
not  spare  our  time  to  describe  others — must  have 
exercised  a  profound  influence  upon  the  popular 
religion.  Some  may  have  been  loved,  some  wor- 
shiped, many  feared,  and  all  respected.  They 
furnished  the  material  from  which  many  stories 
for  the  nursery  were  constructed.  Children  were 
frightened  into  obedience  by  relating  to  them 
stories  of  bugbears  and  hobgoblins — Lamia, 
Gorgo,  Ephialtes,  Mormolyca,  Akko,  Alphito, 
Empousa.  Superstitious  terrors  were  created  and 
fed  by  such  nonsense.*)" 

The  Greeks  prayed  and  offered  sacrifices,  and 
in  this  manner  they  recognized  the  blessings  re- 
ceived from  the  heavenly  divinities,  and  besought 
their  continuance.     The  devoted  Greek  filled  his 


♦Hesiod,  The  Theogony,  pp.  18,  41. 

t  Becker,  Charicles,  pp.  224,225;  Lucian,  Dialogues  of  the 
Gods,  p.  37 ;  Theocritus,  Idyll  xv,  40. 


NYMPHS  AND  M0N8TBR8  93 

house  with  shrines,  and  presented  thereon  offer- 
ings to  secure  the  especial  favor  and  protection 
of  his  own  peculiar  patron  deities.  He  prayed 
both  morning  and  evening,  and  did  not  fail  to 
conclude  each  meal  with  a  hymn  or  prayer. 

But  this  family  worship  did  not  suffice,  ex- 
cept when  life  was  running  smoothly.  When 
sickness  or  danger  was  felt  to  be  near,  there  were 
prayers,  sacrifices,  and  vows  to  meet  the  special 
emergency. 

The  religious  festivals  of  the  Greeks — na- 
tional, political,  tribal,  and  others — were  numer- 
ous and  important.  The  perfection  of  the  music, 
the  brilliancy  of  the  processions,  the  theatrical 
contests,  the  magnificent  equipages,  the  splendor 
and  excitement  of  the  scene,  and  the  many  races 
and  games,  made  these  festivals  attractive  and 
joyous.  Sacrifices  were  offered,  and  the  people 
feasted  on  the  flesh  of  the  sacrificial  victims. 
The  great  festivals — the  Olympian,  the  Delphian, 
the  Isthmian,  and  the  Nemean — were  expected 
with  eagerness,  and  celebrated  with  enthusiasm. 
The  lesser  festivals  had  also  their  own  impor- 
tance, and  all  were  marked  by  brightness,  cheer- 
fulness, joyousness,  feasting  and  dancing,  and 
general  good  cheer.  This,  indeed,  was  a  distin- 
guishing mark  of  the  Greek  religion — light,  grace, 
pleasure,  gladness. 


94 


DEPARTED  GODS. 


*  The  gods,  however,  could  be  offended,  and 
then  visited  upon  individuals,  families,  cities,  and 
nations,  calamities  great  and  terrible.  The  Furies 
were  sometimes  the  agents  of  the  gods  in  their 
inflictions  of  punishment.  The  crimes  most 
hateful  to  the  gods  were  blasphemy,  sacrilege, 
perjury,  treachery,  incest,  and  others  of  similar 
character.     Fierce  demons  were  sent  to  torment 


FOOT-RACE,  OLYMPIAN  FESTIVAL. 

the  guilty  soul,  and  peace  was  only  possible  when, 
by  long  and  tedious  rites,  the  gods  had  been  pro- 
pitiated. Some  sins  seem  to  have  placed  the 
offender  beyond  the  reach  of  mercy,  and  human 
sacrifices  were  the  only  possible  propitiation  for 
certain  national  sins. 

The  general  rule,  however,  was  facility  in  se- 
curing pardon.  It  could  not  be  expected  that 
the  people  would  be  better  than  the  gods  whom 


NYMPHs  AND  M0N8TBBS.  95 

they  worshiped,  and  it  was  not  difficult  to  find 
among  the  gods  crimes  similar  to  their  own. 
The  gods,  therefore,  might  be  offended  at  their 
behavior,  but  would  accept  a  slight  offering  as  a 
sufficient  satisfaction.     This  made  sin  easy. 

Besides  the  personal,  household,  and  public 
worship — as  performed  regularly,  or  in  special 
emergencies,  and  in  connection  with  the  national, 
tribal,  and  local  festivals — the  mysteries  occu- 
pied a  prominent  place  in  the  religion  of  the 
Greeks.  The  profound  secrecy,  the  music,  the 
processions,  the  awful  meanings,  the  unexpected 
and  sudden  transitions,  the  profound  symbolism, 
and  the  wide  popularity,  powerfully  attracted  to 
these  mysteries.  They  may  have  taught  little 
theology,  but  doubtless  they  held  close  to  the 
prevailing  religious  beliefs.  Devoted  to  some 
chosen  god,  they  symbolized  his  mythologic  life, 
and  in  that  manner  ever  commemorated  his  his- 
tory. They  also  symbolized  something  beyond 
the  popular  interpretation  of  these  myths;  but 
how  much  beyond,  and  what,  can  not  with  cer- 
tainty, be  determined.  Their  general  influence 
upon  the  religion  can  not  have  been  beneficial. 

The  Greeks,  like  many  heathen  nations,  were 
much  devoted  to  religious  observances.  Paul 
noticed  in  Athens  an  altar  to  the  "Unknown 
God."      Sometimes   the   name   of  the  Supreme 


96  DEPARTED  GODS. 

God  was  considered  too  sacred  to  be  pronounced 
or  written.  There  might  also  be  a  fear  lest,  in 
the  multiplicity  of  gods  to  whom  sacrifices  were 
offered,  some  god  might  be  forgotten.  And  then, 
too,  it  might  not  be  known  to  what  god  thanks 
were  due  for  some  special  favor. 

When  the  Athenians  were  afflicted  by  a 
plague,  and  were  enjoined  by  the  priestess  at 
Delphi  to  purify  the  city,  they  sent  for  Epi- 
menides,  a  Cretan  philosopher,  especially  be- 
loved, as  they  believed,  by  the  gods.  This  was 
in  the  forty-sixth  Olympiad.  Coming  to  the 
city,  he  took  some  black  sheep  and  some  white 
ones,  and  led  them  up  to  the  Areopagus.  There 
he  set  them  free,  and  let  them  wander  about  at 
their  pleasure.  Attendants  followed  them,  and 
as  often  as  one  after  the  other  lay  down,  it  was 
sacrificed  to  the  patron  deity  of  the  spot.  In 
this  manner  the  deadly  plague  was  stayed. 
And,  says  Diogenes  Laertius,  there  may  still  be 
found,  in  the  different  boroughs,  altars  without 
names.  These  he  considers  memorials  of  the 
propitiation  of  the  gods  which  then  took 
place* 

We  may  consider  these  sheep  as  scapegoats. 
In  wandering  about  in  the  city,  they  gathered 
to  themselves  the   plague   or  plague-spirits,  and 

*  Diogenes  Laertius,  Lives  of  the  Philosophers,  p.  51. 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  97 

bore   them   each   to  her  own   special  deity,  and 
there  yielded  them  up  with  her  life. 

We  may  compare  another  sacrifice.  Barley 
mixed  with  wheat,  or  cakes  made  therefrom, 
were  laid  on  the  altar  of  Zeus  Polieus,  on  the 
Acropolis.  Oxen  were  driven  around  the  altar, 
and  the  ox  which  first  ate  of  the  offering  was 
thereby  designated  for  the  sacrifice.  The  ax 
and  knife  to  be  used  were  sanctified  by  being 
wet  in  water  brought  by  certain  maidens.  The 
weapons  were  sharpened  and  handed  to  two 
butchers.  One  felled  the  ox  with  his  ax,  threw 
the  ax  away,  and  fled.  The  other  cut  the  throat 
of  the  ox  with  his  knife,  threw  the  knife  away, 
and  fled.  The  ox  was  skinned,  and  all  present 
joined  in  a  sacrificial  meal.  The  hide  was  stuffed 
with  straw,  and  yoked  to  a  plow.  A  trial  was 
then  held  to  determine  who  murdered  the  ox. 
The  maidens  charged  it  upon  those  who  sharp- 
ened the  weapons;  the  latter  accused  those  who 
handed  them  to  the  butchers;  those  who  handed 
the  weapons  to  the  butchers  blamed  the  butchers ; 
and  the  butchers  blamed  the  ax  and  knife,  which 
were  finally  found  guilty,  condemned,  and  cast 
into  the  sea.  In  this  case  the  ox  may  have  rep- 
resented the  corn-spirit,  sacrificed  at  the  end  of 
the  harvest  to  become  incarnate,  with  renewed 
vigor,  with  the  beginning  of  the  following  season. 


98 


DEPARTED  GODS. 


Paul,  in  Acts,  mentions  an  altar  to  the  "Un- 
known God."  Pausanius  says  that  at  Athens 
there  were  altars  to  gods  whose  names  were  un- 
known. Philostratus  bears  testimony  to  the 
same  fact. 

"Among  the  Greeks,  as  among  the  Italicans, 
religion  was  a  matter  of  personal  conscience,  and 

the  full  exercise 
of  divine  wor- 
ship a  personal 
right  of  every 
freeman.  No 
privileged  caste 
stood  between 
gods  and  men. 
Every  Hellene 
may  offer  sacri- 
fice and  prayer 
without  any 
stranger's  medi- 
ation. The  mission  of  religion  is  to  accompany 
every  public  and  domestic  action,  to  sanctify 
every  day,  to  consecrate  every  labor  and  every 
pleasure.  This  object  is  achieved  by  man's 
putting  himself  in  communication  with  the 
gods.  Sacrifices  are  nothing  but  the  expression 
of  the  communion  of  life  between  gods  and 
men,  which  should  constantly  be  renewed.     The 


The  Homeric  ZEtrs. 


NYMPB8  AND  MOXSTERS.  99 

sacrificing  human  being  is  a  guest  of  the  gods, 
and  is  thought  worthy  of  sitting  at  the  table  of 
the  gods,  like  Tantalus,  the  friend  of  the  gods, 
and  like  the  blameless  ^Ethiopians,  whose  meal 
is  shared  by  the  Homeric  Zeus.  And  since  this 
friendship  of  the  gods  is  the  fundamental  condi- 
tion of  every  human  blessing,  it  is  also  accessible 
to  every  member  of  the  people,  and  every  one 
whose  hands  are  clean  may  at  the  altar  assure 
himself  anew  of  his  possession  of  this  com- 
munion with  the  gods."* 

A  particular  priesthood  was  necessary  to  give 
permanency  and  regularity  to  the  worship.  Par- 
ticular families,  from  long  connection  with  the 
worship  of  any  deity,  would  be  especially  well 
qualified  to  administer  their  worship  according 
to  established  rules  and  traditions.  There  would 
easily  arise  a  priestly  hereditary  nobility,  who, 
though  not  forming  a  caste,  would  yet  possess 
great  importance  and  dignity  in  the  eyes  of  the 
people.  These  priestly  families  would  soon  be- 
come the  depositaries  of  knowledge  concerning 
religious  services,  and  the  conservators  of  ancient 
ideas  and  customs.  They  preserved  the  purity 
of  the  forms  of  worship,  and  guarded  the  invi- 
olability of  sacred  things,  while  they  supported 
and  strengthened  the  State  in  many  ways — ter- 

•Curtiue,  History  <>f  Greece^  Vol.  II,  p.  3. 


100  DEPARTED  GODS. 

rifying  evil-doers,  cursing  enemies  in  the  name 
of  the  gods,  and  solemnly  blessing  all  acts  of 
State  worship.  Although  the  power  of  the 
priests  at  times  was  great,  they  never  asserted 
themselves  as  a  hierarchy.  In  fact,  they  were 
frequently  split  up  into  factions,  and  this  would 
be  a  powerful  check  upon  any  tendencies  danger- 
ous to  the  State. 

The  mantic  art,  in  its  origin,  was  not  con- 
nected with  the  priesthood.  Gods,  men,  and 
things  were  considered,  in  some  sense,  one  in 
government.  Unusual  phenomena  in  earth,  air, 
or  sky  were  received  as  divine  hints.  Those 
whose  hearts  were  nearest  the  gods  and  nature 
could  read  these  omens.  Knowing  the  divine 
will,  they  could  demand  a  hearing,  and  insist 
upon  obedience.  Especially  in  sacrifices  the 
Greeks  looked  for  divine  revelations ;  and  hence 
everything  connected  with  the  offering  of  sacri- 
fices was  subjected  to  the  closest  scrutiny,  that 
no  admonition  or  notification  of  the  gods  might 
escape  attention.  But  this  low  kind  of  prophecy 
could  not  chain  the  mind  of  the  intellectual  and 
cultured,  however  mighty  might  be  its  influence 
among  the  mass  of  the  people. 

With  the  worship  of  Apollo  the  mantic  art 
finds  its  highest  development.  The  god  speaks 
through  the  mouths  of  girls  and  women,  whose 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  101 

own  consciousness,  in  moments  of  prophetic 
frenzy,  is  so  lost  that  they  have  neither  will  nor 
understanding  in  the  words  which  they  pro- 
nounce. Their  words  must  be  interpreted.  Here 
the  mantic  art  comes  into  relation  with  the 
priestly.  Divination,  in  its  best  work,  was  drawn 
to  fixed  places  and  special  days.  There  soon 
arose  influential  oracles,  consecrated  by  divine 
omens  and  revered  associations,  and  in  their  ad- 
ministration the  priests  acquired  new  power  and 
dignity.  These  oracles  became  centers  of  culture ; 
and  the  priests  were  so  well  versed  in  national 
affairs,  and  so  schooled  by  experience,  that  the 
answers  they  gave  to  many  questions  were  char- 
acterized by  much  wisdom.  Certain  questions, 
beyond  the  reach  of  their  wisdom,  they  might 
refuse  to  answer  as  improper;  or  the  answers 
might  be  worded  in  a  manner  so  ambiguous  that 
it  would  be  impossible  thereafter  to  prove  them 
false.  Hence  the  oracles  long  maintained  their 
influence,  and  especially  the  Delphic  oracle  was 
a  seat  of  wonderful  power.  It  bound  the  Hel- 
lenes together  as  a  nation,  and  it  bound  true 
worshipers  to  the  will  of  Zeus,  while  it  insisted 
upon  purity  of  life.  The  priests  of  Delphic 
Apollo  baptized  with  Castalian  water,  but  warned 
the  candidates  :  "  Deceive  not  yourselves.  For 
the  good,  indeed,  one  drop  of  the  sacred  spring 


102  DEPARTED  GODS. 

suffices ;  but  from  the  bad,  no  sea  of  water  shall 
wash  away  the  pollution  of  sin."* 

The  several  oracles  were  maintained  in  har- 
monious relations  with  themselves  and  with  all 
Greece.  The  sanctuary  was  the  safest  place  in 
which  to  deposit  money  as  well  as  all  kinds  of 
articles  of  value,  and  hence  became  an  institu- 
tion somewhat  similar  to  modern  banking  estab- 
lishments. The  oracle  fostered  the  beginnings  of 
literature,  and  exercised  a  weighty  influence  over 
Greek  art  and  architecture.  Every  colony  was 
sent  out  and  planted  under  the  protection  of 
Apollo,  and,  in  true  missionary  spirit,  carried  his 
worship  to  many  foreign  coasts.  The  oracle  was 
also  closely  connected  with  markets,  trades,  and 
all  commercial  enterprise.  The  calendar  was 
placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  priests,  and 
while  the  civil  year  was  not  forgotten,  the  sacred 
year  came  into  general  use.  Great  national  fes- 
tivals worked  harmoniously  with  the  oracles  in 
maintaining  a  national  spirit.  The  Delphic 
AmphicLyony  established  a  definite  number  of 
deities,  and  the  priests  guarded  against  the  in- 
troduction of  new  gods. 

Delphi,  in  the  days  of  the  splendor  and  great- 
ness of  its  power,  was  the  spiritual  center  of  all 
arts,  and  united  them  all  for   religious  purposes. 

(urtius,  History  of  Greece,  Vol.  II,  p.  27. 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  103 

"  In  honor  of  the  same  god  the  columns  rise  to 
bear  the  tabulature  of  marble ;  the  courts,  as  well 
as  the  pediments  and  metopes  of  the  temple,  are 
filled  with  statuary ;  and  the  inner  walls  of  the 
temples  are  adorned  with  woven  tapestry,  the 
place  of  which  is  afterwards  taken  by  the  art  of 
painting.  The  same  divine  glory  is  served  by 
the  hymn  and  the  song  of  victory,  by  music  and 
the  dance.  Therefore  the  Greeks  conceived  the 
Muses  as  a  choir,  and  were  unable  to  represent 
to  themselves  the  single  goddesses  as  individuals 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  assembly ;  and  in 
Apollo  they  saw  the  leader  of  this  choir  of  the 
Muses.  It  was  no  poetic  metaphor  for  the 
Greeks,  but  a  religious  belief,  which  they  dis- 
played in  a  grand  group  of  statuary  in  the  front 
of  the  temple  at  Delphi.  And  thus  the  Delphic 
Apollo  really  stands  at  the  center  of  all  the 
higher  tendencies  of  scientific  inquiry  and  artis- 
tic effects,  as  the  guiding  genius  of  spiritual  life, 
which  he,  surrounded  by  the  chosen  heads  of  the 
nations,  conducts  to  a  grand  and  clear  expression 
of  its  totality,  by  this  means  founding  an  ideal 
unity  of  the  Greek  people."  * 

The  Greeks  did  not  recognize  sin  in  the  Chris- 
tian sense,  though  several  of  the  philosophers  and 
poets  approximated  to   the  idea.      The   gods   or 

*  Curtis,  ffietory  of  Greece,  Vol.  II,  pp.  100,  101. 


104  DEPARTED  GODS. 

fate  were  considered  quite  as  responsible  for  sin 
as  man  himself.  Wrong-doing  of  every  kind  was 
most  frequently  expressed  by  ate  with  its  cor- 
responding verb.  "  The  radical  signification  of 
the  word  seems  'to  be  a  befooling — a  depriving 
one  of  his  senses  and  his  reason,  as  by  unsea- 
sonable sleep  and  excess  of  wine,  joined  with  the 
influence  of  evil  companions,  and  the  power  of 
destiny  or  the  deity.  Hence  the  Greek  imagi- 
nation, which  impersonated  every  great  power, 
very  naturally  conceived  of  Ate  as  a  person,  a 
sort  of  omnipresent  and  universal  cause  of  folly 
and  sin,  of  mischief  and  misery,  who,  though  the 
daughter  of  Jupiter,  yet  once  fooled  or  misled 
Jupiter  himself,  and  thenceforth,  cast  down  from 
heaven  to  earth,  walks  with  light  feet  over  the 
heads  of  men,  and  makes  all  things  go  wrong. 
Hence,  too,  when  men  come  to  their  senses,  and 
see  what  folly  and  wrong  they  have  perpetrated, 
they  cast  the  blame  on  Ate,  and,  so,  ultimately, 
on  Jupiter  and  the  gods."* 

There  was  something  more  than  an  under- 
tone of  sadness  in  many  expressions  concerning 
life.  From  Homer,  onward,  the  low  lamentation 
may  be  heard.     Sophocles  says,  mournfully: 

"Happiest  beyond  compare 
Never  to  taste  of  life; 


*  Tyler,  Theology  of  the  Greek  Poets,  pp.  174,  175. 


NYMPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  105 

Happiest  in  order  next, 
Being  born,  with  quickest  speed 
Thither  again  to  turn 
From  whence  we  came." 

Simonides  says :  "  Sorrow  follows  sorrow  so 
quickly  that  not  even  the  air  can  penetrate  be- 
tween them." 

There  is  no  relief  in  expectation,  in  the  life 
to  come.  Indeed,  the  future,  when  held  in  seri- 
ous contemplation,  is,  if  possible,  worse  than  the 
present.  "This  world  alone  was  real — alone 
offered  true  happiness ;  the  other  was  the  gloomy, 
joyless,  lower  world.  Ulysses,  in  Homer,  sees 
the  dead,  as  shadows,  greedily  drink  the  blood 
which,  for  a  moment  at  least,  restores  to  them 
real  life;  and  Achilles  would  rather  linger  upon 
earth  in  the  lowest  station  than  be  a  king 
among  the  shades."  Anacreon  sings  in  sad 
strains:  "My  temples  are  gray,  and  white  my 
head;  beautiful  youth  is  gone.  Not  muoh  re- 
mains of  sweet  life.  Therefore  I  often  sigh, 
fearing  Tartarus,  dreadful  abyss  of  Hades.  Full 
of  horror  is  the  descent  thither,  and  whoever 
has  once  gone  down  there,  never  returns."  * 

Whether  life  or  death  were  better  was  per- 
haps an  evenly-balanced  question.  Those  who 
believed  in   a   future   existence,  were  in  fear  of 

*TJhlhorn,  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism, 
pp.  72-74. 


106  DEPARTED  GODS. 

death.     Those  who  conceived  this  life  to  be  the 
all,  sought  to  escape  its  evils  in  death. 

The  writings  of  the  poets  teem  with  appear- 
ances of  the  dead  in  visible  form,  to  avenge 
themselves  on  those  who  did  them  ill  during  life. 
Much  attention  was  paid  to  the  propitiation  of 
the  shades  of  the  departed.  It  was  believed 
that  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  might  be  summoned 
to  life  to  give  advice  to  the  living,  or  to  de- 
nounce before  them  the  criminal.  If  the  mur- 
derer wiped  his  weapon  on  the  head  of  the  vic- 
tim, or  wore  under  his  arm  a  piece  of  flesh  from 
the  body  of  the  murdered  man,  he  need  fear  no 
injury  from  the  avenging  spirit,  since  his  power 
for  evil  would  thereby  be  destroyed.  When 
Jason,  with  the  aid  of  the  magic  wiles  of  Medea, 
murdered  her  brother  Absyrtus,  he  three  times 
licked  up  the  black  blood  of  the  hero,  and  three 
times  spat  it  out  from  his  mouth,  and  in  this 
manner  made  expiation  of  the  bloody  treachery. 
At  a  later  date  the  two  criminals  resorted  to 
Circe,  to  be  purified  from  the  unatoned  blood- 
shed. She  slew  the  young  of  a  sow  above  their 
heads,  and  wetted  their  hands  in  its  blood,  and 
poured  out  unnamed  libations.  Then  she  burnt 
upon  the  hearth  a  soothing  sop  of  honey,  oil, 
and  meal,  while  she  offered  up  her  prayers. * 

*  Apollonius  Rhodius,  Argonautica,  iv. 


THE  CHOICE  OF  HERACLES. 


107 


108  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  use  of  the  ordeal — handling  red-hot  iron, 
passing  through  fire,  and  so  on — was  common 
among  the  Greeks.* 

We  gladly  record  the  fact  that  all  the  Greeks 
were  not  in  this  case.  Many,  with  the  spirit  of 
faith  and  the  purpose  of  righteousness,  took  a 
more  cheerful  view  of  life,  and  saw  in  the  future 
a  brighter  prospect.  This  was  illustrated  in  the 
choice  of  Heracles.  Some  of  these  elect,  with 
an  instinctive  faith  in  the  Father-God,  trod  the 
common  walks  of  life;  others  were  those  rare 
souls  whose  names  are  still  great  in  the  world's 
literature.  These,  however,  only  point  to  oases 
in  the  spiritual  desert. 

Among  those  who  dwelt  nearest  the  heart  of 
God,  Socrates  was  pre-eminent.  He  lived  a  pure 
and  noble  life;  he  met  death  with  philosophic, 
and  we  might  say  Christian,  composure ;  and  he 
lives  immortal  in  the  works  of  Plato,  his  illustri- 
ous disciple.  We  may  recall  certain  choice  pas- 
sages in  his  death-discourses : 

"A  man  who  is  good  for  anything,  ought  not 
to  calculate   the  chance  of  living   or  dying;  he 

*  JEschylus,  Cheophori,  32,  136,  315,  333,  479;  Eumenides, 
94,  et  seq. ;  Euripides,  Hecuba,  i,  e t  seq. ;  Heliodorus,  Ethiopics, 
vi,  14 ;  Sophocles,  Electra,  443-446 ;  Antigone,  264-266 ;  Tibul- 
lus,  i,  2,  23;  Maxim  us  Tyrius,  xiv,  2;  Plato,  Laws,  x;  Apuleius, 
Metamorphoses,  ii ;  Plutarch,  Those  Who  are  Punished  by  the 
Deity  Late,  17,  22. 


XYMPHS  AM)  MONSTERS.  100 

ought  only  to  consider  whether,  in  doing  any- 
thing, he  is  doing  right  or  wrong — acting  the 
part  of  a  good  man  or  of  a  bad."  "The  diffi- 
culty, my  friends,  is  not  in  avoiding  death,  but 
in  avoiding  unrighteousness ;  for  that  runs  faster 
than  death."  "  Wherefore,  0  judges,  be  of  good 
cheer  about  death,  and  know  this  of  a  truth — 
that  no  evil  can  happen  to  a  good  man,  either  in 
life  or  after  death.  He  and  his  are  not  neglected 
by  the  gods;  nor  has  my  own  approaching  end 
happened  by  mere  chance.  But  I  see  clearly 
that  to  die  and  be  released  was  better  for  me; 
and  therefore  the  oracle  gave  no  sign.  For 
which  reason,  also,  I  am  not  angry  with  my  ac- 
cusers or  my  condemners;  they  have  done  me 
no  harm,  although  neither  of  them  meant  to  do 
me  any  good;  and  for  this  I  may  gently  blame 
them.  .  .  .  The  hour  of  departure  has  ar- 
rived, and  we  go  our  ways — I  to  die,  and  you 
to  live.  Which  is  better,  God  only  knows." 
"I  am  confident  in  the  belief  that  there  truly  is 
such  a  thing  as  living  again,  and  that  the  living 
spring  from  the  dead,  and  that  the  souls  of  the 
dead  are  in  existence,  and  that  the  good  souls 
have  a  better  portion  than  the  evil."  "0  Sim- 
raias,  how  strange  that  is !  I  am  not  very  likely 
to  persuade  other  men  that  I  do  not  regard  my 

present  situation  as  a  misfortune,  if  I  am  unable 

10 


110  DEPARTED  GODS. 

to  persuade  you,  and  you  will  keep  fancying 
that  I  am  at  all  more  troubled  now  than  at  any 
other  time.  Will  you  not  allow  that  I  have  as 
much  of  the  spirit  of  prophecy  in  me  as  the 
swans  ?  For  they,  when  they  perceive  that  they 
must  die,  having  sung  all  their  life  long,  do  then 
sing  more  than  ever,  rejoicing  in  the  thought 
that  they  are  about  to  go  away  to  the  gods 
whose  ministers  they  are.  .  .  .  And  I  too, 
believing  myself  to  be  the  consecrated  servant 
of  the  same  God,  and  the  fellow-servant  of  the 
swans,  and  thinking  that  I  have  received  from 
my  Master  gifts  of  prophecy  which  are  not  in- 
ferior to  theirs,  would  not  go  out  of  life  less 
merrily  than  the  swans."  Crito  asked  how  he 
would  be  buried.  Socrates  replied :  "  In  any 
way  that  you  like;  only  you  must  get  hold  of 
me,  and  take  care  that  I  do  not  walk  away  from 
you."  Then  he  turned  to  the  other  friends  who 
were  with  him  in  his  last  hour,  and  added,  with 
a  smile:  "I  can  not  make  Crito  believe  that  I 
am  the  same  Socrates  who  have  been  talking 
and  conducting  the  argument;  he  fancies  that  I 
am  the  other  Socrates  whom  he  will  soon  see 
a  dead  body,  and  he  asks,  How  shall  he  bury 
me?  And  though  I  have  spoken  many  words 
in  the  endeavor  to  show  that,  when  I  have  drunk 
the  poison,  I  shall  leave  you,  and  go  to  the  joys 


NlWfPHS  AND  MONSTERS.  Ill 

of  the  blessed — these  words  of  mine,  with  which 
I  comforted  you  and  myself,  have  had,  as 
I  perceive,  no  effect  upon  Crito.  And  therefore 
I  want  you  to  be  surety  for  me  now,  as  he  was 
surety  for  me  at  the  trial ;  but  let  the  promise 
be  of  another  sort — for  he  was  my  surety  to  the 
judges  that  I  would  remain ;  but  you  must  be 
my  surety  to  him  that  I  shall  not  remain,  but 
go  away  and  depart;  and  then  he  will  suffer  less 
at  my  death,  and  not  be  grieved  when  he  sees 
my  body  being  burned  or  buried.  I  would  not 
have  him  sorrow  at  my  hard  lot,  or  say  at  the 
burial,  Thus  we  lay  out  Socrates ;  or,  Thus  we 
follow  him  to  the  grave  or  bury  him;  for  false 
words  are  not  only  evil  in  themselves,  but  they 
infect  the  soul  with  evil.  Be  of  good  cheer 
then,  my  dear  Crito,  and  say  that  you  are  bury- 
ing my  body  only,  and  do  with  that  as  is  usual, 
and  as  you  think  best."  * 

*  Plato,  Jowett's  Translation,   Vol.  I,  pp.  326,  336,  338,  339, 
399,  413,  414,  449. 


II. 


tEIjE  Ksligimt  of  fljB  (Efntsirans. 


«s 


THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS. 

THE  Etruscans  left  no  literature,  yet  there 
are  brief  notices  of  their  religion  in  the 
works  of  classic  authors,  and  abundant  illustra- 
tions in  the  remains  of  native  works  of  art. 
These  must,  at  the  present  at  least,  be  our  chief 
sources  of  information  with  respect  to  their  wor- 
ship. There  are  also  numerous  Etruscan  se- 
pulchral inscriptions;  but  the  language  is  still 
insoluble ;  and  even  were  it  otherwise,  legends  so 
brief  would  possess  but  little  value.  Relying, 
then,  on  the  reports  of  foreign  authors  who 
wrote  long  after  the  Etruscans  had  ceased  to  ex- 
ist as  a  nation,  and  had  been  subjected  to  foreign 
rule,  and  long  after  their  religion  had  been  mod- 
ified by  the  pressure  and  introduction  of  alien 
and  sometimes  hostile  elements,  we  must  rest 
satisfied  with  general  and  imperfect  results. 

The  Etruscans  were  intensely  religious. 
"With  Etruria,  religion  was  an  all-pervading 
principle,  the  very  atmosphere  of  her  exist- 
ence, a  leaven  operating  on  the  entire  mass  of 
society,  a  constant  pressure  ever  felt  in  one  form 
or  other — a  form  admitting  no  rival,  all-ruling, 

all-regulating,  all-requiring." 

115 


116  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Livy  calls  the  Etruscans  "a  race  which,  in- 
asmuch as  it  excelled  in  the  art  of  religious  ob- 
servances, was  more  devoted  to  them  than  any 
other  nation."  Arnobius  says  that  Etruria  was 
"the  creator  and  parent  of  superstition."  The 
very  name  of  the  nation,  Tusci,  is  derived  by 
some  authorities  from  thuein,  "to  sacrifice,"  and 
especially  "to  make  offerings  to  the  gods."  The 
Etruscans  were  celebrated  for  the  zeal  and  scru- 
pulous care  with  which  they  practiced  the  vari- 
ous observances  of  its  rites  and  ceremonies.* 

Besides  angels  and  demons,  there  were  three 
general  classes  of  divinities :  the  deities  of 
heaven,  the  deities  of  earth,  and  the  deities  of 
the  under-world.  Archaeological  research  is  still 
making  revelations  of  new  forms  of  gods  and 
spirits;  but  of  not  a  few  of  these  we  know  not 
even  the  names. 

Tina  was  the  chief  of  the  heavenly  gods,  and 
wielded  the  thunder-bolt.  He  was  the  god  of 
the  sky,  and  may  have  been  originally  the 
heaven  itself — like  the  Chinese  Tien,  with  whom 
in  name  also  he  bears  a  resemblance.  He  was 
"  the  center  of  the  Etruscan  god-world,  the  power 
who  speaks  in  the  thunder  and  descends  in  the 
lightning."     To   this    bright   god  a  temple  was 


♦Rawlinson,  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  pp.  160, 
161. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  117 

dedicated  in  every  city,  and  one  of  the  gates  of 
each  city  bore  his  name.  An  Etruscan  family 
name  and  the  name  of  a  streamlet  were  derived 
from  this  god.  lie  sometimes  received  the  title 
Suminanus,  "the  supreme  god."* 

Cupra  was  a  heavenly  goddess  to  whom  a 
temple  and  a  gate  were  dedicated  in  every  Etrus- 
can city.  She  has  been  identified  with  Hera 
and  Juno.f  The  name  has  been  compared  with 
the  Cybele  of  Phrygia.  Cupra  "expresses  the 
character  of  Juno,  as  presiding  over  contracts 
and  obligations  of  every  description  involving 
good  faith  among  mankind,  and  especially  that 
of  marriage."  J 

Thalna,  or  Thana,  is  thought  to  be  the  same 
goddess.  If  she  be  but  a  mere  variant  of  Tina, 
she  may  be  the  reflex  of  the  sky-god.  Possibly 
she  may  be  regarded  as  the  personification  of 
light  or  day.  She  is  represented  on  Etruscan 
mirrors  as  assisting  at  the  birth  of  certain  divin- 
ities, or  as  an  attendant  of  Latona.  She  has  "a 
coronet,  earrings,  necklace,  and  tunic,  a  fillet  or 
twig  in  her  hand,  and  a  green  branch  before  her 


♦Taylor,  Etruscan  Researches,  p.  132;  Rawlinson,  The  Re- 
ligions of  the  Ancient  World,  pp.  161,  162;  Dennis,  Cities  and 
Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  Vol.  II,  p.  444. 

t  Strabo,  Vol.  I,  p.  357. 

+  Crawford  and  Balcarras,  Etruscan  Inscriptions,  p.  251. 
11 


118  DEPARTED  GODS. 

face.  ...  On  a  mirror  from  Vulci,  Thalna  ap- 
pears as  a  male  god,  half  nude,  with  a  coronet 
and  staff."  The  name  is  found  in  composition 
in  Thank vilus  or  Tanaquil. 

Altria,  who  may  be  compared  with  the  Greek 
Graces,  was  represented  as  a  nude  and  beautiful 
woman,  with  a  crown  and  necklace,  and  gener- 
ally in  company  with  Thalna  and  Euturpa.* 

Menrva  had  her  own  temple  and  gate  in  each 
Etruscan  city.  The  name  is  of  very  frequent 
occurrence  on  works  of  art.  We  can,  however, 
gather  very  little  information  whereby  to  judge 
of  her  character.  According  to  Taylor,  Menrva 
denotes  the  "  red  heaven,"  or  "  the  dawn,"  and 
the  two  Menrvas,  which  occasionally  appear  on 
the  same  mirror,  denote  the  morning  and  the  even- 
ing twilight.f  She  is  represented  armed,  with 
the  regis  on  her  breast,  and  sometimes  with 
wings.  On  one  mirror  she  is  vanquishing  the 
giant  Akrathe.  "  The  goddess,  who  is  armed 
with  helmet,  aegis,  and  spear,  has  just  cut  or 
broken  oif,  it  is  not  clear  which,  the  giant's  right 
arm  close  to  the  shoulder ;  and,  grasping  it  by 
the  wrist,  she  brandishes  it  over  his  head,  ac- 
companying the  action  with  a  sardonic  grin  at 
her  foe,  who,  sinking  to  his   knees,  looks  up  at 

♦Cooper,  Archaic  Dictionary,  pp.  31,  567. 
t  Taylor,  Etruscan  Researches,  pp.  137,  138. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETR I  ><    I  A X  119 

her  with  an  expression  rather  of  astonishment 
at  her  cleverness  than  of  pain  or  terror."  * 

Usil,  the  sun,  has  been  identified  with  Apollo, 
and  was  represented  by  the  native  artists  as  a 
youth  with  bow  and  arrows.  According  to 
Festus,  ansel  was  a  Sabine  word,  meaning  "  the 
sun,"  and  according  to  Hesychius  the  Etruscan 
word  ansel  meant  "  the  dawn."  The  name  is 
found  on  a  bronze  mirror  from  Vulci,  in  con- 
nection with  Thesan  and  Nethuns.  Usil  wore 
laced  sandals,  and  was  crowned  with  the  rays  of 
the  sun. 

Losna,  the  moon,  was  represented  nearly  as 
the  Roman  Diana.  The  crescent  was  her  em- 
blem, and  her  figure  is  found  on  a  mirror  from 
Pneneste.  She  may  be  Luna  in  the  character 
of  Lucina.f 

We  leave  the  heavenly  deities,  and  come  to 
the  consideration  of  those  whose  realm  was  the 
earth. 

Sethlans — the  Greek  Hephaestus  and  the 
Roman  Vulcan — was  the  god  of  fire.  Nethuns, 
who  may  be  considered  the  Neptune  of  the  clas- 
sics, was  represented  wearing  a  crown  and  car- 
rying a  trident.  Phuphlans,  the  god  of  the 
earth   and   its   products,  may  be  compared  with 

*  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etf  uria,  Vol.  II,  p.  429. 
t  Taylor,  Etruscan  Researches,  pp.  142,  143,  289. 


120  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Dionysus  and  Bacchus.  "  Phulans  was  the 
special  deity  of  Popluna,  or  (as  the  Romans 
called  it)  Populonia.  He  seems  to  have  been 
called  also  Vortumnus,  or  Volturnus,  and  in  this 
aspect  he  had  a  female  counterpart,  Voltumna, 
whose  temple  was  the  place  of  meeting  where 
the  princes  of  Etruria  discussed  the  affairs  of 
the  confederation."  * 

Turan  was  the  Greek  Aphrodite  and  the 
Roman  Venus.  There  was  also  a  male  Turan, 
who  was  a  youthful  god,  accompanied  by  a  war- 
rior, Avun  by  name,  armed  with  a  spear.  Thesan 
seems  to  have  been  in  nature  like  the  Greek 
Eos  and  the  Roman  Aurora.  Turms — Hermes, 
Mercury — was  the  god  of  boundaries  and  the 
messenger  of  the  underworld.  The  native  name 
is  thought  to  have  been  Camillus,  or  Kamil. 
According  to  Servius,  the  Etruscan  name  of 
youthful  priestesses  was  camillce,  and  the  attend- 
ant minister  of  the  Flamen  Dialis  at  the  sacri- 
fices was  called  Camillus.f 

The  goddess  Zirna  is  represented  on  Etruscan 
works  of  art  as  sitting  at  the  side  of  Turan  and 
Adonis,  with  a  pencil  and  box  of  cosmetics,  and 
a  half-moon  hanging  from  her  neck.     Munthukh 


•  Rawlinson,  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  p.  164. 
t  Rawlinson,  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  p.  165 ; 
Taylor,  Etruscan  Researches,  p.  150. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  121 

is  similarly  represented,  but  wears  also  a  neck- 
lace. She  seems  to  have  been  a  goddess  of 
health.  Sometimes  she  carried  a  dove  on  her 
right  arm. 

Alpanu  is  "an  Etruscan  goddess,  with  cor- 
onet, earrings,  tunic,  and  mantle,  and  a  star  be- 
hind her  head,  who  is  represented  on  one  mirror 
as  embracing  the  goddess  Akhuvitr,  on  another 
as  embracing  the  goddess  Thaur,  and  on  a  third 
as  attracting  the  love  of  a  youth  called  Famu;" 
while  Akhate,  "an  old,  bald-headed  man,  in  a 
cloak,"  warns  Famu  against  her  blandishments. 
Tipanu  and  Sipna  were  attending  goddesses,  each 
with  a  mirror  in  her  hand. 

Uni  was  a  goddess  who  assisted  at  the  birth 
of  Athene  from  the  head  of  Zeus,  and  she  was 
present  when  Hephaistos  chained  Here.  Lalan, 
or  Laran,  was  a  youthful  war-god.  With  him 
compare  Greek  Ares,  who  was  represented  with 
cloak,  buskins,  helmet,  spear,  sword,  and  shield. 

Faun  may  be  compared  with  Orpheus.  He 
is  seated  on  a  rock,  wears  a  necklace  ard  a  laurel 
crown,  and  plays  on  a  lyre ;  while  a  female, 
Rutupis  by  name,  with  tunic,  mantle,  and  crown, 
is  at  his  side. 

Asera  is  a  goddess,  armed   with   a  hatchet. 
Suetonius  says  that  Arsar  means  "a  god." 
The   nine  great  gods,  or  Da  Novensiles,  pos- 


122  DEPARTED  GODS. 

sessed  the  power  of  hurling  the  thunder-bolt,  and 
were  held  in  high  honor.  •  The  Dii  Complices  and 
the  Dii  Consent es  were  general  names  of  the 
twelve  principal  gods  of  Elruria  and  the  coun- 
selors of  Tina.  The  Dii  Involute  were  the  fates 
who  ruled  both  gods  and  men. 

Other  names  are  found  in  Etruscan  mythol- 
ogy; but  so  little  is  known  concerning  their  na- 
tures and  attributes  that  they  may  be  neglected 
in  this  account. 

"  But  it  was  in  the  unseen  world  beneath  the 
earth,  the  place  to  which  men  went  after  death, 
and  where  the  souls  of  their  ancestors  resided, 
lhat  the  Etruscans  devoted  the  chief  portion  of 
their  religious  thoughts ;  and  with  this  were  con- 
nected the  bulk  of  their  religious  observances. 
Over  the  dark  realm  of  the  dead  ruled  Mantus 
and  Mania,  king  and  queen  of  Hades,  the  former 
represented  as  an  old  man,  wearing  a  crown,  and 
with  wings  on  his  shoulders,  and  bearing  in  his 
hands  sometimes  a  torch,  sometimes  two  or  three 
large  nails,  which  are  thought  to  indicate  '  the 
inevitable  character  of  his  decrees.'  Intimately 
connected  with  these  deities — their  prime  min- 
ister and  most  active  agent,  cruel,  hideous,  half 
human,  half  animal,  the  chief  figure  in  almost 
all  the  representations  of  the  lower  world — is  the 
demon  Charun,  in  name  no  doubt  identical  with 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  123 

the  Stygian  ferryman  of  the  Greeks,  but  in  char- 
acter so  different  that  it  has  even  been  main- 
tained th.it  there  is  no  analogy  between  them. 
Charon  is  'generally  represented  as  a  squalid 
and  hideous  old  man,  with  flaming  eyes  and 
savage  aspect;  but  he  has,  moreover,  the  ears 
and  often  the  tusks  of  a  brute,'  with  (sometimes) 
'negro  features  and  complexion,  and  frequently 
wings,'  so  that  he  'answers  well,  cloven  feet  ex- 
cepted, to  the  modern  conception  of  the  devil.' 
His  brow  is  sometimes  bound  round  by  snakes ; 
at  other  times  he  has  a  snake  twisted  round  his 
arm ;  and  he  bears  in  his  hands  almost  univer- 
sally a  huge  mallet  or  hammer,  upraised  as  if  he 
were  about  to  deal  a  death-stroke.  When  death 
is  being  inflicted  by  man,  he  stands  by,  'grin- 
ning with  savage  delight;'  when  it  comes  nat- 
urally, he  is  almost  as  well  pleased.  He  holds 
the  horse  on  which  the  departed  soul  is  to  take 
its  journey  to  the  other  world,  bids  the  spirit 
mount,  leads  away  the  horse  by  the  bridle  or 
drives  it  before  him,  and  thus  conducts  the  de- 
ceased into  the  grim  kingdom  of  the  dead.  In 
that  kingdom  he  is  one  of  the  tormentors  of 
guilty  souls,  whom  he  strikes  with  his  mallet  or 
with  a  sword,  while  they  kneel  before  him  and 
implore  his  mercy.  Various  attendant  demons 
and   furies — some   male,   some   female — seem  to 


124  DEPARTED  GODS. 

act  under  his  orders,  and  inflict  such  tortures  as 
he  is  pleased  to  prescribe."  * 

Instead  of  hands  Charun  has  sometimes  lion's 
paws.  He  is  depicted  of  a  livid  hue,  like  the 
demon  Eurynomos,  who  devoured  the  flesh  of 
the  dead.  Sometimes  the  sword  takes  the  place 
of  the  mallet,  or  a  rudder  or  an  oar,  which  would 
suggest  the  Greek  Charon ;  or  a  forked  stick, 
like  the  caduceus  of  Mercury;  or  a  torch  or 
snakes ;  and  sometimes  the  mallet  and  the  sword 
are  found  together.  When  eyes  are  represented 
in  the  wings  of  Charun,  this  may  intimate  su- 
perhuman power  and  intelligence.  The  mallet, 
in  one  instance,  is  decorated  with  a  fillet ;  in 
another  it  is  encircled  by  a  serpent.  We  meet 
with  Charun  represented  with  an  engle's  bill  for 
a  nose.  His  wings  are  open,  gray  above  and 
blue,  black,  and  red  on  the  pinions ;  while  his 
dress  is  a  white  tunic,  with  a  red  girdle  and  a 
yellow  spotted  band  crossed  over  his  bosom.  In 
the  same  representation  a  huge  crested  and 
bearded  snake  springs  from  his  right  shoulder, 
and  a  sort  of  halo  surmounts  his  head.-)- 


*Rawlinson,  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  "World,  pp.  165- 
167 ;  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Ktruria,  Vol.  I,  pp.  287, 
288,  342. 

t  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  Vol.  I,  p.  348  • 
Vol.  II,  pp.  191-193. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  125 

Kulnu,  the  god  of  the  grave,  is  represented 
bearing  in  one  hand  the  flaming  torch,  and  in 
the  other  the  emblematic  shears.  Vanth  was  the 
angel  of  death,  and  has  a  cap  and  wings,  and 
bears  a  huge  key  wherewith  to  open  the  tombs 
of  the  departed.  Nathuns,  an  avenging  fury, 
whose  snake-like  hair  stands  on  end,  and  whose 
tusk-like  fangs  protrude  from  his  mouth,  bears  a 
serpent  in  either  hand.  Tukhulkha  has  the  ears 
of  an  ass,  the  beak  of  an  enormous  eagle,  which 
serves  at  once  for  nose  and  mouth,  and  two  hiss- 
ing snakes  bound  round  his  brows  and  mingling 
with  his  shaggy  locks.  He  seizes  his  victims  by 
the  neck,  or  brandishes  huge  serpents  over  their 
heads.  "  His  open  wings  have  a  snake-like  bor- 
der, and  the  very  feathers  have  caught  the  hue 
of  a  serpent's  skin."  Turmukas  was  one  of  the 
messengers  of  Hades.  Phipeke  was  a  lion- 
headed  monster;  an  upturned  urn  is  represented 
beneath  him,  and  water  pours  from  his  mouth. 
He  engaged  in  combat  with  Herakles.  If  not  the 
Hydra,  he  was  perhaps  a  water-imp. 

The  Typhon,  represented  in  the  Grotto  Del 
Tifone,  was  a  horrid  being.  "  The  attitude  of 
the  body ;  the  outspread  wings  ;  the  dark,  massy 
coils  of  the  serpent-limbs ;  the  wild  twisting  of 
the  serpent  locks ;  the  countenance  uplifted  with 
an  expression  of  unutterable  woe,  as  he  supports 


126  DEPARTED  GODS. 

the  cornice  with  his  hands, — make  this  figure  im- 
posing, mysterious,  sublime."  * 

In  one  representation  "  Aita,"  or  Hades,  sits 
on  his  throne,  the  upper  part  of  his  body  bare, 
but  the  lower  part  covered  with  brown  drapery ; 
his  flesh  deep  red ;  his  beard  black,  grand,  and 
gloomy;  his  left  hand  holding  aloft  a  snake;  his 
right  hand  extended  as  if  giving  orders  to  the 
triple-headed  warrior  who  stands  in  front,  armed 
with  shield  and  spear.  His  wife  sits  by  his  side, 
and  is  wrapped  in  white  drapery;  a  deep  fringe 
is  thrown  over  her  shoulders,  and  her  head  is 
bound  about  with  green  snakes. 

There  are  certain  m3'thological  figures  which 
we  may  consider  the  representations  of  marine 
deities.  They  are  generally  in  the  form  of 
women  from  the  middle  upwards,  but  with  fishes' 
tails  instead  of  legs.  A  few  are  male.  Their  gen- 
eral character  is  that  of  winged  creatures,  with 
smaller  wings  springing  from  their  temples.  The 
wings  may  symbolize  power  and  intelligence,  with 
swiftness  of  thought  and  action.  Sometimes  a 
pair  of  snakes  are  knotted  around  their  brows,  up- 
rearing  their  crests  as  in  Egyptian  gods  and  kings. 
They  bear  a  trident  or  an  anchor,  a  rudder  or  an 
oar,  a  sword  or  firebrand,  or  mass  of  rock.  These 
symbolize  their  power  not  only  on  the  ocean,  but 

*  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  Vol.  I,  p.  330. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  127 

also  on  the  land.  They  brandish  their  weapons 
over  the  heads  of  their  victims.  Often  they  have 
tongues  of  snakes  about  their  necks.  Some  of 
these  marine  deities  or  demons  are  stupendous 
monsters, 

44  Horrible,  hideous,  and  of  hellish  race." 

Etruscan  art,  especially  in  the  tombs,  fairly 
luxuriates  in  these  monster  forms. 

Lasa  was  a  deity  of  another  character.  He  may 
be  considered  the  beneficent  guardian  deity  of  de- 
parted souls.  His  equipment  is  consistent  with 
his  office.  He  is  represented  with  wings,  cap, 
earrings,  necklace,  and  buskins  ;  and  carries  in  his 
hands  paper,  an  inkhorn,  and  a  stylus.  Mean  was 
a  beneficent  goddess.  She  has  a  coronet,  earrings, 
and  wings;  and  she  sometimes  carries  two  palm- 
branches  in  her  hand.  These  divinities  record  the 
destinies  of  men.  Dennis  calls  them  "  mild,  and 
decreeing  fates." 

When  a  man  dies,  his  spirit,  all  robed  in  spot- 
less white,  proceeding  on  foot,  or  sitting  in  a 
car,  or  mounted  on  a  horse,  and  attended  by  a 
slave  who  carries  a  sack  or  vase  of  provisions, 
takes  its  long  journey  to  the  unseen  and  unknown 
world.  The  good  man'  is  peaceful  and  resigned, 
but  the  bad  man  is  full  of  horror  and  dismay. 
Good  spirits,  who  are  represented  as  of  red  color, 
and    wicked,  black   spirits,  contend    for  the  pos- 


128  DEPARTED  GODS. 

session  of  the  soul.  The  evil  spirits  add  a  new 
horror  to  their  appearance  by  wreathing  their 
heads  with  serpents. 

The  Etruscans  believed  that  every  human  be- 
ing had  a  protecting  genius,  who  was  his  constant 
companion,  guard,  and  guide,  both  in  the  present 
world  and  in  the  realm  of  immortality.  The 
Lemures  were  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  The  Lares 
were  the  spirits  of  virtuous  ancestors  who  pre- 
sided over  the  hearths  and  homes  of  their  chil- 
dren. The  Lar  Familiaris  was  the  lord  of  the 
whole  family.  The  Larvae  were  the  spirits  of 
wicked  ancestors,  and  are  banished  from  the  do. 
mestic  hearth.  The  Manes  were  the  souls  of  the 
departed.  The  word  is  frequently  used  as  synon- 
ymous with  Lares,  and  is  "  connected  likewise 
in  tradition  with  the  lower  world,  and  with  the 
moon,  the  souls  #of  men  being  supposed  to  have 
emanated  from  that  planet."  * 

The  genii  of  the  Romans  were  the  offspring  of 
the  great  gods,  and  the  givers  of  life  itself,  and 
hence  they  were  called  Dii  Genitales.  These 
genii  received  worship  among  the  Romans,  as 
among  the  Etruscans.  The  majority  of  the  Etrus- 
can genii  were  females,  and  are  sometimes  called 
genice.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish 
them  from  Fates   or  Furies.     They  have   many 

*  Crawford  and  Balcarras,  Etruscan  Inscriptions,  p.  261. 


HELIOIOX  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  129 

of  the  same  characteristics.  All  have  wings,  high 
buskins  (often  with  long  flaps),  a  short,  high-girt 
tunic,  and  a  double  strap  crossing  the  bosom.  The 
emblems  which  they  carry  reveal  their  nature. 
Fates  and  Furies  carry  hammer,  sword,  snake, 
torch,  and  shears  ;  the  mild  Fates  have  in  their 
hands  scroll,  inkhorn,  stylus,  and  sometimes  ham- 
mer and  nail;  the  Genii  bear  a  simple  wand  or 
nothing. 

The  nail  symbolizes  a  fixed  decree  of  fate. 
Nortia  is  the  Fortune  of  Etruscan  mythology,  and 
had  a  shrine  at  Volsinii.  She  is  also  mentioned 
on  a  votive  tablet  as  the  goddess  of  this  city. 
Her  temple  was  a  sort  of  national  calendar ;  for  a 
nail  was  driven  into  it  every  year,  as  into  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol  of  Rome.  In 
one  representation,  the  winged  fate  Athrpa  or 
Atropos — the  Nortia  of  the  Etruscans  with  a 
Greek  name — is  about  to  drive  a  nail  to  indicate 
the  predetermined  death  of  Meleager  and  of 
Adonis.  Horace  presents  a  picture  of  Necessity 
the  companion  of  Fortune,  bearing  such  nails 
in  her  hand,  and  he  calls  them  adamantine.  * 

The   goddess  probably  had  a  temple  also  at 
Ferentinum. 

Horta,  an  Etruscan  goddess,  equivalent  to  the 
Roman  Salus,  is  to  be  distinguished  from  Nortia. 

•Horace,  Cariiiina,  i,  35,  17;  iii,  24,  5. 


130  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Plutarch  says  that  the  temple  of  Horta  was  al- 
ways kept  open.* 

Gerhard  connects  Nortia  closely  with  Minerva. 
The  nail  was  driven  in  the  right  side  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter,  where  the  temple  of  Minerva  is, 
"  because  number  is  the  invention  of  that  god- 
dess."-]* Pauli  has  shown  that  Nurtia  became 
"the  goddess  Ten,  Latin  Decuma,  Decima,  as 
connected  with  the  tenth  month  of  the  Etruscan 
year.  J 

The  Etruscans  had  neither  priests  nor  prophets, 
properly  so  called,  but  rather  what  may  be  con- 
sidered as  no  more  than  mere  shamans — augurers, 
sorcerers  and  necromancers,  haruspices  and  fulgu- 
rators,  all  mere  "  medicine  men  " — who,  by  noting 
the  flight  of  birds,  the  entrails  of  animals,  the 
path  of  the  lightning,  and  other  signs,  interpreted 
the  utterances  of  the  spirits  of  nature  and  the  souls 
of  the  dead.  This  low  and  barbarous  priesthood 
was  "  an  all-dominating  hierarchy,  which  assumed 
to  be  a  theocracy,  and  maintained  its  sway  by 
arrogating  to  itself  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  will  of  Heaven  and   the  decrees   of  fate."  I 


*  Tacitus,  Annals,  xv,  53;  Plutarch,  Qusestiones  Roman*, 
xlvi. 

t  Livy,  vii,  3. 

J  The  Academy,  No.  875,  p.  97c. 

||  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  Vol.  I,  Introduc- 
tion, p.  xlii. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  131 

These  priests  were  neither  expounders  of  truth 
nor  teachers  of  righteousness. 

'•  Men  were  taught  to  observe  the  signs  in  the 
sky,  and  the  appearance  and  flight  of  birds,  the 
sounds  which  they  uttered,  their  position  at  the 
time,  and  various  other  particulars.  They  were 
bidden  to  note  whatever  came  in  their  way  that 
seemed  to  them  unusual  or  abnormal,  and  to  re- 
port all  to  the  priests,  who  thereupon  pronounced 
an  inevitable  doom  or  prescribed  a  mode  whereby 
the  doom  might  be  postponed  or  averted.  Some- 
times the  signs  reported  were  declared  to  affect 
merely  individuals;  but  frequently  the  word  went 
forth  that  danger  was  portended  to  (he  State, 
and  then  it  was  for  the  priesthood  to  determine 
at  once  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  danger,  and 
also  the  measures  to  be  adopted  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. 

Sacrifices  on  a  vast  scale  or  of  an  unusual 
character  were  commonly  commanded  in  such 
cases,  even  human  victims  being  occasionally 
offered  to  the  infernal  deities  Mantus  and  Mania, 
whose  wrath  it  was  impossible  to  appease  in  any 
less  fearful  way.  Certain  books,  in  the  possession 
of  the  hierarchy,  ascribed  to  a  half  divine,  half 
human  personage,  named  Tages,  and  handed 
down  from  a  remote  antiquity,  contained  the 
system  of  divination  which  the  priests  followed, 


132  DEPARTED  GODS. 

and  guided  them  in  their  expositions  and  re- 
quirements." * 

Tages,  according  to  classic  authors,  was  the 
son  of  Genius  and  the  grandson  of  Jupiter.  A 
Tuscan  plowman  discovered  him  in  the  form  of  a 
clod.  "  His  name  is  not  found  in  the  inscriptions; 
but  he  is  represented  on  two  gems  as  a  boy,  half 
plowed  up  from  the  earth,  teaching  the  Etruscan 
priests."  f 

Clemens  of  Alexandria  says  that  the  Carians 
were  the  first  who  divined  from  the  stars,  the 
Phrygians  from  the  flight  of  birds,  and  the  Etrus- 
cans by  auruspicy.  The  Etruscans  were  es- 
pecially distinguished  for  divination  by  lightning, 
and  in  this  art  were  said  to  have  excelled  all 
other  nations.  Cicero,  an  acknowledged  author- 
ity on  the  subject  of  soothsaying,  had  great  con- 
fidence in  their  skill.  Joannes  Lydus,  in  his 
work  "De  Ostentis,"  on  the  authority  of  Nig- 
idius  Figulus,  gives  an  Etruscan  "  Thunder  Cal- 
endar" for  every  day  in  the  year.  This,  he  says, 
was  taken  from  the  books  of  Tages.  Servius 
mentions  Etruscan  books  on  lightning.  They 
gave  their  system  of  divination  to  the  Romans — 


*Rawlinson,  The  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  pp. 
170,  171. 

t  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  Vol.  I,  pp.  418, 
419 ;  Cooper,  Archaic  Dictionary,  p.  547. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  133 

a  system  practiced  by  the  latter  nation  even 
down  to  the  fifth  century. 

There  are  many  theories  concerning  the  origin 
and  affinities  of  the  Etruscans.  Though  scholars 
have  looked  in  every  direction  and  questioned 
almost  every  language,  no  theory  which  has  been 
proposed  is  entirely  satisfactory.  Both  tradition 
and  the  monuments  point,  with  a  goodly  degree 
of  confidence,  to  that  group  of  nations  of  which 
the  Lydians,  Carians,  and  Lycians  in  Asia  Minor 
are  perhaps  the  best  representatives.  The  Etrus- 
cans, and  the  Turanian  races  generally,  were  em- 
phatically a  tomb-building  people. 

"These  cities  of  the  dead  are  constructed  on 
the  precise  model  of  the  cities  of  the  living.  The 
tombs  themselves  are  exact  imitations  of  the 
house.  There  is  usually  an  outer  vestibule,  ap- 
parently appropriated  to  the  annual  funeral  feast. 
From  this  a  passage  leads  to  a  large  central 
chamber,  which  is  lighted  by  windows  cut  through 
the  rock.  This  central  hall  is  surrounded  by 
smaller  chambers,  in  which  the  dead  repose.  On 
the  roof  we  see,  carved  in  stone,  the  broad  beam, 
or  roof-tree,  with  rafters,  imitated  in  relief,  on 
either  side,  and  even  imitations  of  the  tiles. 
These  chambers  contain  the  corpses,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  all  the  implements,  ornaments,  and 

utensils   used   in   life.     The   tombs  are,  in  fact, 
12 


134  DEPARTED  GODS. 

places  for  the  dead  to  live  in.  The  position  and 
surroundings  of  the  deceased  are  made  to  ap- 
proximate, as  closely  as  possible,  to  the  condi- 
tions of  life.  The  couches  on  which  the  corpses 
repose  have  a  triclinal  arrangement,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  cushions  carved  in  stone;  and  imita- 
tions of  easy  chairs  and  footstools  are  carefully 
hewn  out  of  the  rock.  Everything,  in  short,  is 
arranged  as  if  the  dead  were  reclining  at  a  ban- 
quet in  their  accustomed  dwellings.  On  the 
floor  stand  wine-jars,  and  the  most  precious  be- 
longings of  the  deceased — arms,  ornaments,  and 
mirrors — hang  from  the  roof,  or  are  suspended 
on  the  walls.  The  walls  themselves  are  richly 
decorated,  usually  being  painted  with  represen- 
tations of  festive  scenes.  We  see  figures  in 
gaily  embroidered  garments  reclining  on  couches, 
while  attendants  replenish  the  goblets  or  beat 
time  to  the  music  of  the  pipers.  Nothing  is 
omitted  which  can  conduce  to  the  amusement  or 
comfort  of  the  deceased.  Their  spirits  were  ev- 
idently believed  to  inhabit  these  house-tombs 
after  death,  just  as  in  life  they  inhabited  their 
houses."  :|: 

In  these  tombs — the  real  temples  of  the  Etrus- 
cans— the  whole  family  assembled,  at  their  an- 
nual religious    feast,  to  worship   the   Lares  and 

*  Taylor,  Etruscan  Researches,  pp.  46,  48. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  135 

Manes  of  their  ancestors,  make  suitable  offerings 
to  their  spirits,  and  perform  other  most  snored 
rites.  Here  successive  generations  of  the  dead 
were  entertained  by  the  pious  care  of  the  living. 
The  offerings  consisted  of  cups,  dishes,  portrait- 
statues,  lamps,  vases,  mirrors,  armor,  gems,  seals 
and  jewelry,  and  were  presented  to  the  departed, 
whose  spirits  could  be  conciliated,  and  whose  as- 
sistance and  protection  could  be  secured.  "To 
celebrate  the  great  event,  to  us  so  solemn,  by 
feasting  and  joviality,  was  not  with  them  unbe- 
coming. They  knew  not  how  to  conceive  or  rep- 
resent a  glorified  existence  otherwise  than  by 
scenes  of  the  highest  sensual  enjoyment."* 

The  explorer  from  whom  we  have  been  quot- 
ing relates  with  enthusiasm  his  first  impressions 
upon  entering  an  Etruscan  tomb.  It  was  the 
Grotta  Volunna :  "I  shall  always  remember  it 
as  the  first  Etruscan  tomb  I  entered.  It  was 
soon  after  its  discovery  that  I  found  myself  at 
the  mouth  of  this  sepulcher.  Never  shall  I 
forget  the  anticipation  of  delight  with  which  I 
leaped  from  the  vcttura  into  the  fierce  canicular 
sun,  with  what  impatience  I  awaited  the  arrival 
of  the  kevs,  with  what  strange  awe  I  entered 
the  dark  cavern,  gazed  on  the  inexplicable  char- 

Dtimis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Ktruria,  Vol.  I,  pp.  208, 
238,  241,  322. 


136  DEPARTED  GODS. 

acters  in  the  doorway,  descried  the  urns  dimly 
through  the  gloom,  beheld  the  family  party  at 
their  sepulchral  revels,  the  solemn  dreariness  of 
the  surrounding  cells.  The  figures  on  the  walls 
and  ceilings  strangely  stirred  my  fancy.  The 
Furies,  with  their  glaring  eyes,  gnashing  teeth, 
and  gastly  grins ;  the  snakes,  with  which  the 
walls  seemed  alive,  hissing  and  darting  their 
tongues  at  me ;  and,  above  all,  the  solitary  wing, 
chilled  me  with  an  undefinable  awe,  with  a  sense 
of  something  mysterious  and  terrible.  The  sep- 
ulcher  itself,  so  neatly  hewn  and  decorated,  yet 
so  gloomy ;  fashioned  like  a  house,  yet  with  no 
mortal  inhabitant, — all  was  so  strange,  so  novel. 
It  was  like  enchantment,  not  reality;  or,  rather, 
it  was  the  realization  of  the  pictures  of  subter- 
ranean palaces  and  spell-bound  men,  which  youth- 
ful fancy  had  drawn  from  the  Arabian  Nights, 
but  which  had  long  been  cast  aside  into  the 
lumber-room  of  the  memory,  now  to  be  suddenly 
restored."* 

The  furniture  of  the  sepulchral  houses — in  a 
few  cases  they  represent  temples — is  such  as  is 
adapted  to  funeral  banquets  and  games.  There 
are  also  articles  to  be  used  by  the  soul  in  the 
other  world.  Sometimes  a  piece  of  money  was 
placed   in   the   mouth   of  the   deceased,  that  he 

*  Dennis,  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria,  Vol.  II,  p.  449. 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  137 

might  have  something  wherewith  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses of  the  journey  to  the  realm  of  the  shades. 
The  paintings  represent  feasts  and  games,  such 
as  were  held  on  funeral  occasions,  or  such  as 
would  symbolize  the  happy  life  of  the  dead. 
Cinerary  urns  and  sarcophagi  show  that  both 
burning  and  burial  were  practiced  in  different 
Etruscan  cities  and  in  different  ages,  but  some- 
times also  in  the  same  age  and  city.  Arms  and 
armor  have  been  found  as  they  were  worn  by 
these  old  warriors,  whose  dust  alone  tells  the 
tale  of  their  mortality.  Representations  of  lions 
and  panthers  are  frequent,  and  may  symbolize 
the  guardians  of  the  tomb.  The  meaning  of  the 
centaurs,  hippogriffs,  hippocamps,  and  other  ob- 
jects.of  monstrous  form,  has  not  been  determined. 
Common  domestic  animals  probably  only  serve 
to  set  off  the  scene  and  render  it  more  life-like. 
Snakes  are  very  abundant  in  the  works  of  Etrus- 
can artists.  They  rise  from  the  feet,  spring  out 
from  the  loins,  twine  about  the  arms,  and  crown 
the  head.  They  cling  to  the  spear  and  mallet, 
and  are  carried  as  scourges  by  horrid  furies. 
The  symbolic  eye  is  also  of  frequent  occurrence 
on  wings  and  vases. 

The  eye  is  a  symbol  found  in  use  among 
many  nations.  We  have  spoken  elsewhere  of  its 
occurrence  on  wings.     It  is  found  also  very  fre- 


138  DEPARTED  GODS. 

quently  on  vases — not  only  on  those  of  Greek 
origin,  but  also  on  others  which  are  certainly 
purely  Etruscan.  Dennis  suggests  three  expla- 
nations :  It  may  mark  objects  and  scenes  as 
Bacchic  in  their  import.  It  may  be  a  charm 
against  the  evil  eye.  The  Gorgonion  was  be- 
lieved to  possess  the  power  of  averting  evil. 
These  eyes  may  be  Gorgons;  sometimes  the 
features  of  a  face  are  represented.  Again,  vases 
bear  a  resemblance  to  boats.  Several  names  of 
goblets  and  certain  names  of  boats  are  the  same. 
Heracles  crossed  the  sea  to  Spain  in  a  goblet. 
Eyes  are  placed  on  the  prows  of  boats,  either 
from  a  fancied  analogy  with  fish  or  to  intimate 
the  watchfulness  necessary  to  the  good  pilot. 

Various  compound  beings  may  have  symbol- 
ized the  double  life  of  the  soul — the  life  which 
now  is  and-  that  which  is  to  come.  All  the  sym- 
bols of  Etruscan  art  may  have  been  originally 
full  of  meaning,  but  at  present  we  can  only  con- 
jecture as  to  their  mysterious  and  awful  import. 
Future  study  will,  in  some  measure  at  least,  dis- 
close their  meaning. 

Mommsen  sums  up  the  character  of  the  relig- 
ion of  the  Etruscans  as  follows  :  "  The  religion 
of  the  Tuscans  in  particular  presenting  a  gloomy 
fantastic  character,  and  delighting  in  the  mystical 
handling  of  numbers  in  wild  and   horrible  specu- 


RELIGION  OF  THE  ETRUSCANS.  139 

l;itions  and  practices,  is  equally  remote  from  the 
clear  rationalism  of  the  Romans,  ami  the  genial 
image- worship  of  the  Hellenes.  .  .  .  Their 
prevailing  characteristics  are  a  gloomy  and  withal 
tiresome  mysticism,  ringing  the  changes  on  num- 
bers, soothsaying,  and  that  solemn  enthroning 
of  pure  absurdity  which  at  all  times  finds  its  own 
circle  of  devotees.  .  .  .  This  worship  was 
cruel,  including  in  particular  the  sficrifice  of  their 
captives ;  thus,  at  C:ere  they  slaughtered  the 
Phocjean,  and  at  Tarquinii,  the  Roman  prisoners. 
Instead  of  a  tranquil  world  of  departed  "  good 
spirits,"  ruling  peacefully  in  the  realms  beneath, 
such  as  the  Latins  had  conceived,  the  Etruscan 
religion  presented  a  veritable  hell,  in  which  the 
poor  souls  were  doomed  to  be  tortured  by  mallets 
and  serpents,  and  to  which  they  were  conveyed 
by  the  conductor  of  the  dead,  a  savage,  semi- 
brutal  old  man,  with  wings  and  a  large  hammer — 
a  figure  which  afterwards  served  in  the  gladia- 
torial games  at  Rome  as  a  model  for  the  costume 
of  the  man  who  removed  the  corpses  of  the  slain 
from  the  arena.  .  .  .  The  Etruscan  religion 
occupied  a  higher  level  than  the  Roman,  in  so 
far  as  it  developed  at  least  the  rudiments  of  what 
was  wholly  wanting*  among  the  Romans — specu- 
lation veiled  under  the  forms  of  religion.  Over 
the  world  and  its  gods  there  ruled  the  veiled  gods 


140  DEPARTED  GODS. 

(Dii  Involute),  consulted  by  the  Etruscan  Jupiter 
himself;  that  world  moreover  was  finite,  and,  as 
it  had  come  into  being,  so  was  it  again  to  pass 
away  after  the  expiry  of  a  definite  period  of 
time,  whose  sections  were  the  scecula.  Respecting 
the  intellectual  value  which  may  once  have  be- 
longed to  this  Etruscan  cosmogony  and  philosophy, 
it  is  difficult  to  form  a  judgment;  they  appear, 
however,  to  have  been  from  the  very  first  char- 
acterized by  a  dull  fatalism  and  an  insipid  play 
upon  numbers."* 

That  the  Romans  borrowed  much  from  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Etruscans  we  can  not  doubt;  but 
how  much,  it  is  not  easy  to  determine.  That  the 
Etruscans  in  return  received  contributions  from 
Rome  is  equally  certain. 

•  Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  Vol.  I,  pp.  166,  243-245. 


III. 


141 


13 


1. 

THE  GREAT  GODS. 

I'M  IE  religion  of  the  Romans,  unlike  that  of 
the  Greeks,  has  been  called  a  religion  of  re- 
flection, and  not  of  contemplation.  It  exalted  the 
idea  rather  than  the  person,  and  was  controlled 
by  a  stern  necessity.  The  Roman  adored  the 
spiritual  and  the  universal.  There  was  in  the 
spiritual  domain  a  counterpart  to  every  natural 
phenomenon.  To  every  existing  thing  there  was 
assigned  a  spirit  which  came  into  being  with  it, 
and  with  its  departure  perished.  "  In  occupa- 
tions the  very  steps  of  the  process  were  spirit- 
ualized; thus,  for  example,  in  the  prayer  for  the 
husbandman  there  was  invoked  the  spirit  of  fal- 
lowing, of  plowing,  of  furrowing,  sowing,  cover- 
ing-in,  harrowing,  and  so  forth,  down  to  the  in- 
bringing,  up-storing,  and  opening  of  the  granaries. 
In  like  manner,  marriage,  birth,  and  every  other 
natural  event,  were  endowed  with  a  sacred  life. 
The  larger  the  sphere  embraced  in  the  abstraction, 
the  higher  rose  the  god  and  the  reverence  paid 
by  man."  The  Roman  gods,  unseen  and  spiritual, 
gained  a  powerful  hold  on  the  mind,  which  is  felt 
even  in  modern  times  in  survivals  in  architecture, 
superstition,  and  tale. 

143 


144  DEPARTED  GODS. 

"  The  state  and  the  clan,  the  individual  phe- 
nomena of  nature  as  well  as  the  individual  oper- 
ations of  mind,  every  man,  every  place  and  ob- 
ject, every  act,  even  falling  within  the  sphere  of 
Roman  law,  reappeared  in  the  Roman  world  of 
gods;  and,  as  earthly  things  come  and  go  in  per- 
petual flux,  the  circle  of  the  gods  underwent  a 
corresponding  fluctuation.  The  tutelary  spirit, 
which  presided  over  the  individual  act,  lasted  no 
longer  than  that  act  itself;  the  tutelary  spirit  of 
the  individual  man  lived  and  died  with  the  man ; 
and  eternal  duration  belonged  to  divinities  of  this 
sort  onlv  in  so  far  as  similar  acts  and  similar  con- 
stituted  men,  and  therefore  spirits  of  a  similar 
kind,  were  ever  coming  into  existence  afresh."  * 

There  is  a  divinity  for  every  stage  of  human 
life.  Consevius  presides  over  generation,  Fluviona 
promotes  the  growth  of  the  embryo,  Vitumnus 
awakens  life,  and  Sentinus  gives  sensation.  Ops — 
assisted  by  Candelifera,  Postverta  and  Prosa  (the 
two  Carmentse),  Lucina,  Partula,  Nona,  Decima, 
and  Alemona,  each  having  her  own  office — brings 
the  new  soul  into  the  light  of  day.  And  now  it 
is  necessary  that  the  mother  should  be  guarded 
against  the  power  of  the  god  Silvanus.  This  is 
effectually  done  by  the  deities  Intercidona,  Pi- 
lumnus,  and  Diverra,  who    surround    the  house, 

*  Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  Vol.  I,  pp.  53,  218. 


THE  GREAT  G ODS.  1 45 

and  leave  the  marks  of  their  callings.  If,  in  ad- 
dition to  these  precautions,  the  god  Forculus 
guards  the  door,  the  god  Limentinus  the  thresh- 
old, and  the  goddess  Cardea  the  hinges,  we  may 
consider  the  inmates  comparatively  safe.  Now 
the  goddess  Rumina  helps  the  child  to  take  its 
first  food,  while  Patina  and  Edula  assist  in  its 
nourishment  in  a  more  general  way.  Cunina  is 
the  goddess  of  the  cradle.  Statina,  or  Statilinus, 
presides  over  the  babe  when  it  learns  to  stand, 
and  Levana  when  it  falls.  Adeona  helps  it  come 
to  its  mother,  and  Abeona  watches  over  it  when 
it  toddles  away  from  maternal  arms.  Paventia, 
or  Paventina,  fills  with  childish  fear;  and  Vati- 
canus  is  the  god  of  the  crying  infant.  The  gods 
Farinus  and  Locutius  inspire  with  speech. 

Then,  we  have  a  multitude  of  gods  who  be- 
long to  early  manhood.  Venilia  inspires  with 
hope ;  Agenor,  or  Agenoria,  with  action ;  Peragenor 
with  perseverance  in  action;  Stimula  furnishes 
intellectual  and  physical  stimulus  ;  Strenia  makes 
strenuous ;  Numeria  teaches  numbers ;  Camcena 
teaches  song ;  Consus  gives  good  advice ;  Sentia 
helps  to  frame  sentences ;  Juvenas,  or  Juventa, 
presides  over  the  youth ;  Murcia  moves  to  ex- 
cess; Quies  makes  quiet;  Fessonia  is  the  goddess 
of  weariness;  and  Pellonia  drives  away  enemies. 

Another  group  of  divinities  preside  over  fam- 


146  DEPARTED  GODS. 

ily  life.  Volupia  is  the  goddess  of  pleasure, 
and  Prsestitia  of  beauty,  while  AfFerenda  attends 
to  fixing  the  dower.  Domiducus  leads  in  the 
bride,  Domitius  protects  her  in  the  house,  and 
the  Manturnse  keep  her  for  her  husband.  Ju- 
gatinus  is  the  god  of  marriage.  Mens  gives  a 
good  mind;  and  Volumnus,  Volumna,  or  Voleta, 
a  good  will.  The  goddess  Fructesca  secures 
fruitfulness.  Then  we  have  a  host  of  gods  and 
goddesses  connected  with  the  bridal  chamber — 
Venus,  Virginiensis,  Mutunus,  Tutunus,  Priapus, 
Pertunda,  Subigus,  Premji,  and  Perfica !  Nor 
is  the  list  yet  complete.  There  is  a  divinity  for 
every  stage  of  human  life,  from  its  earliest  be-, 
ginnings  to  the  latest  moment  of  existence,  and 
Noenia  is  the  goddess  of  the  funeral  dirge. 

Food  to  support  life  is  also  abundantly  pro- 
tected by  deities.  The  earth  as  a  whole,  and 
the  cultivated  earth,  each  has  its  divinities — 
Terra,  Tellus,  Tellumo,  Altor,  Rusor.  Farms  are 
under  the  protection  of  the  goddess  Rusina, 
downs  are  looked  after  by  Collatina,  valleys  are 
sacred  to  Vallonia,  and  ridges  and  mountains  to 
the  god  Jugatinus.  When  the  grain  is  cast  into 
the  ground,  and  before  the  stalk  appears  above 
the  soil,  the  goddess  Seia  must  bless  it;  as  soon 
as  the  blade  is  seen,  Segetia  takes  charge  of  it; 
and  when   the   ripened  grain  is  stored,  Tutilina 


THE  GREAT  GODS.  147 

becomes  its  protectress.  If  the  grain  is  troubled 
with  rust,  prayer  must  be  raised  to  the  god  of 
rust,  Rubigus;  if  the  field  is  invaded  by  thorns, 
help  must  be  sought  from  the  god  of  thorns, 
Spiniensis.  A  single  stalk  of  grain  requires 
several  deities  to  care  for  it — Proserpina  pre- 
sides over  the  germinating  seeds,  Nodatus  has 
charge  of  the  joints  and  knots  of  the  stem,  while 
Volutina  is  busily  employed  about  the  sheaths 
inclosing  the  ears  of  grain.  When  the  sheaths 
open,  then  Patelana  takes  the  place  of  Volu- 
tina; and  when  the  stem  stands  equal  with  new 
ears,  Hostilina  watches  with  joy  these  signs  of 
an  abundant  harvest.  When  it  is  in  the  flower, 
it  is  protected  by  Flora;  when  in  the  milk,  by 
Lacturnus;  when  maturing,  by  Matuta;  and  when 
the  crop  is  removed  from  the  soil,  the  goddess 
Runcina  guards  the  treasure. 

We  have  extended  these  remarks  far  enough 
to  illustrate  the  multitudinous  character  of  the 
Roman  gods.* 

"Our  country  is  so  peopled  with  gods,"  said 
a  woman  of  Campania  to  Petronius,  "that  it 
is  easier  to  find  a  god  there  than  a  man."  "Or 
there  were  at  least  sacred   trees,  stones,  rocks, 


•Augustine,  Works,  The  City  of  God,  Vol.  T,  pp.  144,  145, 
149,  180,  158,  150,  249,  250,  288;  Ante-Xieene  Christian  Library, 
The  Writings  of  Tertullian,  A<1  Xationcs,  pp.  488,  489. 


148  DEPARTED  GODS. 

which  were  decked  by  heathen  piety  with  gar- 
lands and  ribbons,  and  which  no  one  passed  by 
without  some  sign  of  reverence."  Laws  were 
enacted  against  the  introduction  of  foreign  gods 
without  the  sanction  of  the  Senate;  but  these 
laws  seem  to  have  availed  little,  especially  after 
Rome  became  a  world-empire.     All   gods   were 


THE  PANTHEON,  OR  TEMPLE  OF  ALL  THE  GODS. 
(As  at  present.) 

tolerated.  Upon  the  conquest  of  a  province,  its 
gods  were  invited  to  Rome.  "  If  there  be  a  god 
or  goddess  who  has  taken  this  people  and  city, 
N.  u.,  under  its  protection,  Deity,  whosoever 
thou  mayest  be,  I  pray  thee,  I  adjure  thee,  to 
forsake  this  people  and  city,  to  withdraw  from 
this  city  and  its  temple,  and   come  to  Rome  to 


THE  GREAT  GOVS.  149 

me  and  mine,  that  our  city,  our  temples  and  sac- 
rifices, may  be  .acceptable  to  thee.  If  thou  wilt 
do  this,  I  vow  to  thy  divinity  temples  and 
games."  Thus,  in  solemn  formula,  the  gods  of 
all  nations  were  invited  to  Roman  hospitality. 
Rome  demanded  the  recognition  of  her  own 
gods  everywhere,  and  was  willing  to  extend  the 
same  generous  courtesy  to  the  gods  of  all  lands 
and  peoples.* 

But  all  these  gods  could  not  permanently  sat- 
isfy the  Romans.  There  were,  from  time  to 
time  along  down  the  centuries,  gigantic  efforts  to 
uphold  the  religious  system  of  Rome,  but  they 
were  fruitless  efforts.  The  deification  of  the 
emperor — a  sort  of  monotheism  in  the  midst  of 
polytheism — held  together  decaying  heathenism 
for  a  time,  but  the  respite  was  brief.  By  reso- 
lution, both  foreign  men  and  foreign  divinities 
were  pressingly  invited  to  the  freedom  of  Rome, 
and  efforts  were  made  to  make  these  strangers 
feel  at  home.  The  Romans  sometimes  gave  the 
preference  to  foreign  gods  over  their  own  native 
gods,  but  it  availed  nothing.  The  ancient  re- 
ligion became  so  obscured  by  reason  of  foreign 
elements  that  it  is  most  difficult  now  to  deter- 
mine what  is  native  and  what  is  imported.     We 

•Uhlhorn,  Couflict  of  Christianity  with  Heathenism, 
pp.  30,  37. 


150 


DEPARTED  GODS. 


name  several  gods  which  may  be  regarded  as  dis- 
tinctively Roman. 

Jupiter,  "the  father  of  gods  and  men,"  the  chief 
god  of  the  Romans,  resembles  the  Greek  Zeus,  with 


JVriTER. 


whose  name  his  own  is  etymologically  connected. 
He  is  the  god  of  the  sky,  the  air,  and  the  firma- 
ment; and  sends  forth  the  lightning,  the  thun- 
der, and   the   fertilizing  rain.     He   impregnates 


THE  GREAT  GODS.  151 

the  atmosphere  \VUh  the  seeds  of  the  fever  and 
the  pestilence.  Through  portents  he  reveals  his 
will  to  men,  and  those  who  learn  their  interpre- 
tation may  walk  secure  before  heaven.  A  stone 
was  the  old  symbol  of  Jupiter,  and  its  meaning 
was  never  entirely  forgotten.  In  later  times, 
under  Greek  influence,  the  eagle  became  his 
symbol.  The  oak  among  trees,  and  the  wood- 
pecker among  birds,  were  sacred  to  this  god. 

Jupiter  is  the  general  ruler  of  mankind,  and 
the  protector  of  human  society.  He  guards  the 
sanctity  of  oaths,  the  rights  of  strangers  and  sup- 
pliants, the  unity  of  the  State,  and  intercourse 
with  other  people.  The  minister  of  Jupiter  de- 
clared war,  and  in  his  honor  were  celebrated  tri- 
umphal processions.  To  him  were  also  dedicated 
trophies  of  victory.  He  seems  to  have  been  the 
old  god  of  agriculture  and  of  the  vine. 

With  Juno  and  Minerva  he  had  a  temple  on 
Capitoline  Hill,  wherein  his  high  priest,  the  Fla- 
men  Dialis,  maintained  his  worship  with  per- 
petual burnt  sacrifices. 

Juno  has  no  distinctive  character,  except  as 
the  protectress  of  women,  especially  matrons. 
She  is  the  mere  counterpart  of  Jupiter.  Her 
marriage  with  the  father  of  gods  and  men  may 
have  been  an  imported  idea.  There  is  little 
trace  of  nature  in  her  character.     If  originally  a 


152  DEPARTED  GODS. 

foreign  deity,  she  was  probably  Etruscan.  When 
the  city  of  Veii  was  conquered,  its  patron  god- 
dess was  brought  to  Rome  by  Camillus,  and  one 
of  her  chief  cults  was  that  of  Juno  Regina,  on 
the  Aventine.  When  Lanuvium  surrendered,  the 
cultus  of  Juno  Sospita  was  carried  to  Rome,  and 
established  on  Palatine  Hill.  The  mint  for  the 
coining  of  money  was  in  the  temple  of  Juno 
Moneta.  The  Kalends  were  sacred  to  Juno,  as 
the  Ides  to  Jupiter.  The  chief  feast  of  Juno 
was  the  Matronalia,  which  was  celebrated  on  the 
Kalends  of  March,  when  maidens  and  wives  of 
stainless  character  marched  in  procession  to  the 
temple  of  Lucina,  on  the  Esquiline.  Geese  were 
her  favorite  bird,  and  those  which  were  kept  in 
the  Capitoline  temple  gave  timely  warning  of  the 
Gallic  attack. 

Minerva,  like  Juno,  may  have  been  originally 
a  goddess  of  the  Etruscans,  though  the  name 
would  suggest  a  true  Latin  deity.  She  presides 
over  all  handicrafts,  arts,  sciences,  and  inven- 
tions. She  is  especially  the  goddess  of  intelli- 
gence, memory,  and  literature — "the  thinking, 
calculating,  inventive  power  personified."  Po- 
etry, music,  sculpture,  and  painting  were  sacred 
to  Minerva.  Besides  the  temple  on  the  Capi- 
toline Hill,  where  she  was  worshiped  in  connec- 
tion with   Jupiter    and   Juno,   she   had   an   old 


THE  GREAT  GODS.  153 

temple  on  the  Aventine,  which  was  a  regular 
meeting-place  for  poets  and  actors.  The  day  of 
dedication  of  the  temple,  and  the  birthday  of 
the  goddess,  was  the  nineteenth  of  March.  On 
this  auspicious  day  a  great  festival  was  cele- 
brated, which  was  called  quinquatrus,  because  it 
fell  on  the  fifth  day  after  the  Ides.  This  was  a 
holiday  for  all  schools,  and  when  the  scholars 
again  assembled  they  brought  commemorative 
fees  to  their  teachers.  Every  home  also  cele- 
brated this  holiday ;  for  Minerva  was  the  patron 
of  weaving  and  spinning,  and  every  craft  con- 
nected with  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  domes- 
tic life.  The  festival  was  afterward  lengthened 
to  five  days,  and  games  were  introduced  in  an- 
swer to  the  Greek  conception  of  Minerva  as  the 
goddess  of  war.  As  a  war  goddess  she  is  repre- 
sented in  helmet,  and  with  shield  and  coat,  of 
mail.  There  was  a  temple  on  Caelian  Hill  where 
the  lesser  quinquatrus  was  celebrated  from  the 
thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  of  June,  chiefly  by 
flute-players. 

"  The  central  object  not  only  of  Roman,  but 
of  Italian  worship  generally,  in  that  epoch  when 
the  Italian  stock  still  dwelt  by  itself  in  the  pe- 
ninsula, was,  according  to  all  indications,  the  god 
Maurs,  or  Mars,  the  killing  god,  pre-eminently 
regarded  as  the  divine  champion  of  the  burgesses, 


154  DEPARTED  GODS. 

hurling  the  spear,  protecting  the  flock,  and  over- 
throwing the  foe."  * 

Father  Mars,  or  Marspiter,  was  the  god  of 
heaven,  giver  of  light  and  opener  of  the  new 
year,  who  also  sends  the  fertilizing  rain  and  hurls 
the  fearful  thunder-bolt.  Mamurius  Veturius, 
beaten  out  of  the  city  on  the  fifteenth  of  March, 
was  symbolic  of  the  departure  of  the  old  year. 
The  first  month  March  was  named  from  Mars, 
and  on  the  first  day,  the  birthday  of  the  god, 
there  were  various  religious  and  political  festi- 
vals, and  the  holy  fire  was  renewed  in  the  temple 
of  Vesta.  The  sacred  spear  of  Mars  may  have 
been  originally  the  lightning,  and  his  shield,  like 
the  aegis  of  Zeus  and  that  of  Athene,  may  have 
been  the  thunder-bolt.  The  wolf,  the  horse,  and 
the  woodpecker  were  sacred  to  Mars.  As  the 
heaven-god  and  sender  of  rain,  Mars  is  the  giver 
of  fertility  and  increase.  In  some  old  cults  he 
is  the  god  of  land,  agriculture,  and  flocks.  He 
also  caused  drought,  sterility,  and  all  evil.  Like 
Jupiter,  he  had  his  oracles  and  priests.  The 
Fiamen  Martialis  presented  to  him  burnt  offer- 
ings. The  twelve  Palatine  Salii,  or  "  Dancers," 
danced  in  armor  for  many  days,  beginning  with 
the  first  of  March,  through  certain  parts  of  the 
city,  clashing  their  lances   against  their  shields 

'  Moinuisen,  History  of  Rome,  Vol.  I,  p.  222. 


THE  CR FAT  GODS.  155 

and  repeating  the  prescribed  songs.  The  twelve, 
sacred  shields,  or  ancilia,  were  preserved  on  the 
Palatine.  One  of  these — said  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven,  and  the  most  sacred — was  the  pattern  for 
all  the  others.  The  Campus  Martius  was  ded- 
icated to  this  god.  Here  the  young  men  of  Rome 
practiced  warlike  exercises.  Quirinus  may  have 
been  originally  but  a  name  of  Mars;  and  though 
he  had  separate  priests,  the  two  gods  never  be- 
came wholly  distinct  in  the  conception  of  the 
Romans.  Bellona  bears  the  same  relation  to 
Mars  as  Juno  bears  to  Jupiter.  She  is  his  sister 
or  daughter,  and  the  goddess  of  war.  Some- 
times she  appears  as  his  nurse  or  charioteer. 
She  had  a  temple  in  Campus  Martius,  where  the 
Senate  was  accustomed  to  meet  when  they  would 
discuss  the  claims  of  a  general  to  a  triumph,  or 
receive  ambassadors  from  foreign  States.  In 
front  of  her  temple  was  the  columna  bcllica,  where 
the  ceremony  of  declaring  war  was  performed. 

"A  college  of  priests,  called  Bellonarii,  con- 
ducted her  worship,  and  were  bound,  when  they 
offered  sacrifice  in  her  honor,  to  wound  their 
own  arms  or  legs,  and  either  to  offer  up  upon 
her  altar  the  blood  which  flowed  from  their 
wounds  or  else  to  swallow  it  themselves."* 

The  twenty-fourth  of  March,  which  was  ap- 
*  Rawlinson,  Tin-  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,  p.  220. 


156 


DEPARTED  OODS. 


pointed  for  these  services,  was  called  "  the  day 
of  blood."  These  gloomy  features  in  her  wor- 
ship may  have  been  modifications  from  Asiatic 
influence. 

Vesta  was  a  most  ancient  divinity,  and  was 
the  goddess  of  the  hearth,  especially  the  national 
hearth.     She  had  a  temple  on  Palatine  Hill,  and 


TEMPLE  OF  VESTA. 
(As  at  Present.) 


in  the  immediate  vicinity  was  her  sacred  grove. 
Six  Vestal  Virgins,  under  the  control  of  the 
Pontifices,  kept  the  sacred  fire  ever  burning  on 
her  altar.  They  purified  the  shrine  every  morn- 
ing with  water  brought  from  the  Egerian  Spring, 
and  at  stated  times  presented  offerings  to  the 
goddess.     At   the  festival  held   in  her  honor  on 


RUINS  OK  THE  TEMPLE  OF  SATURN  AT  ROME. 


14 


158  DEPARTED  GODS 

the  ninth  of  June,  Roman  matrons  with  bare  feet 
resorted  to  her  temple.  The  eternal  fire  burning 
in  her  temple  was  her  only  and  sufficient  symbol. 

Ceres  was  the  goddess  of  agriculture,  and  was 
early  connected  with  Liber,  the  god  of  the  vine- 
yard. Cerus  and  Cerie  were  a  god  and  goddess 
worshiped  by  the  early  Italians,  and  may  be  con- 
nected with  Ceres.  Her  worship  was  merged  in 
that  of  the  Greek  Demeter. 

Saturnus,  and  his  wife  Ops,  are  among  the 
oldest  deities  of  Italy.  An  altar  erected  to  Sat- 
urnus, at  the  foot  of  the  Capitoline,  is  said  to  have 
preceded  the  foundation  of  Rome.  Under  or  be- 
hind his  temple  was  the  Roman  treasury,  in 
which  were  preserved  the  archives  and  treasures 
of  the  State.  The  oldest  form  of  national  verse 
was  called  the  Saturnian.  He  is  the  god  of  ag- 
riculture, and  his  hollow  statue,  filled  with  olive- 
oil,  speaks  of  fertility  and  abundance.  His  sym- 
bol is  a  sickle,  which  he  bears  in  his  hand.  His 
feet  were  bound  with  wool.  His  festival,  the 
Saturnalia,  lasted  from  the  seventeenth  to  the 
twenty-fourth  of  December.  "  The  woolen  fet- 
ters were  taken  from  the  feet  of  the  image  of 
Saturn,  and  each  man  offered  a  pig.  During  the 
festival,  schools  were  closed;  no  war  was  declared 
or  battle  fought;  no  punishment  was  inflicted.  In 
place  of  the  toga,  an  undress  garment  wa*s  worn. 


THE  GREAT  GODS.  159 

Distinctions  of  rank  were  laid  aside;  slaves  sat 
at  table  with  their  masters  or  were  actually  waited 
on  by  them,  and  the  utmost  freedom  of  speech 
was  allowed  them.  Gambling  with  dice,  at  other 
times  illegal,  was  now  permitted  and  practiced. 
All  classes  exchanged  gifts,  the  commonest  being 
wax  tapers  and  clay  dolls.  These  dolls  were  es- 
pecially given  to  children,  and  the  makers  of  them 
held  a  regular  fair  at  this  time.  Varro  thought 
that  these  dolls  represented  original  sacrifices  of 
human  beings  to  the  infernal  gods."  In  later 
times  Saturnus  was  identified  with  Cronos. 

Ops  was  the  goddess  of  labor,  and  hence  of 
plenty  and  wealth — "opulence."  She  was  gen- 
erally worshiped  in  connection  with  Saturnus, 
but  had  also  her  separate  sanctuary  on  the  Cap- 
itoline.  "  Ops,  like  Ceres,  is  sometimes  confounded 
with  Tellus,  but  the  three  goddesses  were  to  the 
Latin  mind  distinct,  Tellus  being  a  personation  of 
the  earth  itself,  Ceres  of  the  productive  power  of 
nature,  which  brings  forth  fruits  out  of  the  earth, 
and  Ops  of  the  human  labor  without  which  the 
productive  power  runs  to  waste,  and  is  insufficient 
for  the  sustenance  of  life."* 

Hercules  was  a  native  Italian  god  though  the 
name  bears  resemblance  to  the  Greek  Heracles 
with  whom  he  was  early  identified.     He  was  the 

*Kawlius-(»ii,TlifHfligion8of  tin-  Ancient  "World,  pp. 223, 224, 


160  DEPARTED  GODS. 

god  of  the  gains  which  come  from  adventure, 
and  of  any  extraordinary  increase  of  wealth.  At 
his  most  holy  altar  in  the  cattle  market  the  gen- 
eral was  wont  to  present  to  him  the  tenth  of  the 
spoil,  and  the  merchant  the  tenth  of  his  increase. 
He  became  the  god  of  mercantile  covenants,  gen- 
erally, which  in  early  times  were  frequently  con- 
firmed at  his  altar  by  oath.  Hence  he  was  the 
Deus  Fidius,  "  the  god  of  good  faith."  "  The  wor- 
ship of  Hercules  was  from  an  early  date  among 
the  most  widely  diffused ;  he  was,  to  use  the 
words  of  an  ancient  author,  adored  in  every  ham- 
let of  Italy,  and  altars  were  everywhere  erected 
to  him  in  the  streets  of  the  cities  and  along  the 
country  roads."  * 

Mercurius  was  the  god  of  barter,  trade,  and 
all  commercial  transactions.  There  was  no  trade 
at  Rome  till  Italy  felt  the  influence  of  the  Greek 
colonies.  All  the  usages  and  religious  ceremonies 
connected  with  trade  were  borrowed  from  the 
Greeks.  Mercurius  was  not  officially  recognized 
till  the  year  B.  C.  495,  when  also  the  Greek  god 
Hermes  wTas  introduced  into  Rome  under  his  name. 
It  was  probably  at  this  time  that  a  regular  college 
of  merchants  was  instituted  under  the  protection 
of  this  god.  On  the  Ides  of  May  the  mercuriales 
celebrated  a  festival  in  honor  of  their  patron,  with 

*Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  Vol.  I,  p.  241. 


THE  GREAT  GODS.  161 

whom,  under  Greek  influence,  Maia,  the  mother 
of  Hermes,  was  associated. 

••  Mercury  became  the  god,  not  only  of  the 
mercatores  and  of  the  corn-trade,  but  of  buying 
and  selling  in  general ;  and  it  appears  that,  at 
least  in  the  streets  where  shops  were  common, 
little  chapels  and  images  of  the  god  were  erected. 
There  was  a  spring  dedicated  to  Mercury  between 
his  temple  and  the  Porta  Capena.  Every  shopman 
drew  water  from  this  spring  on  the  Ides  of  May, 
and  sprinkled  it  with  a  laurel  twig  over  his  head 
and  over  his  goods,  at  the  same  time  entreating 
Mercury  to  remove  from  his  head  and  his  goods 
the  guilt  of  all  his  deceits.  The  art  of  the  Ro- 
man tradesman  was  evidently  like  that  of  an 
Oriental  tradesman  of  modern  times,  and  the  word 
mercurialis  was  probably  used  as  equivalent  to 
4  cheat.' "  The  position  of  Mercurius  among  the 
Roman  gods  was  a  low  one,  and  his  influence  in 
the  nation  was  not  great. 

Neptunus  has  been  identified  with  the  Etruscan 
water-god  Nethuns.  The  earliest  reference  to  his 
worship  is  on  the  occasion  of  the  first  lectisternium 
held  in  B.  C.  399,  when  the  Sibylline  Books  in- 
cluded him  among  the  gods  to  whom  this  festival 
was  dedicated.  His  cult  was  fully  established  in 
the  second  century  of  the  Republic,  when  it  was 
united  to  that  of  Mercurius.    The  Neptunalia  was 


162  DEPARTED  GODS. 

celebrated  on  the  twenty- third  day  of  July  with 
games,  banquets,  and  carousals.  In  earlier  times 
the  god  Portunus  was  thanked  for  naval  victories. 
Several  Roman  admirals  are  known  to  have  sac- 
rificed to  Neptune.  The  god  became  completely 
identified  with  the  Greek  Poseidon. 


II. 

PRIESTS  AND  FESTIVALS. 

rT^HE  divinities  named  in  the  previous  chapter 

L     may  be  called  the  twelve  great  gods.    There 

are  still  other  native  deities  worthy  of  mention. 

Silvanus  was  an  old  god  of  the  woods  and 
fields,  and  of  the  cattle.  The  Pelasgians  dedi- 
cated a  grove  to  him  near  Ca>re.  Pigs  were  sac- 
rificed to  him,  and  he  received  offerings  of  milk 
at  the  harvest  festivals.  He  is  also  represented 
as  the  god  of  boundaries,  and  on  votive  tablets 
as  the  god  of  planting  and  gardening.  Virgil 
crowns  him  with  fennel  and  lilies,  and  makes 
him  carry  in  his  hand  an  uprooted  cypress.  "On 
a  relief  he  appears  with  a  crown  of  pine-branches 
in  his  hair,  a  pine-branch  in  his  left  hand,  a  skin 
filled  with  fruits  hanging  about  his  neck,  a  prun- 
ing-knife  in  his  right  hand,  and  a  dog  by  his  side." 
He  was  closely  connected  with  rural  life. 

Pomona  was  the  goddess  of  orchards,  loved 
by  silvan  deities,  but  wooed  and  won  by  Ver- 
tumnus,  the  god  of  the  turning  year.  She  had 
a  special  priest,  ami  there  was  a  grove  sacred  to 
her  about  twelve  miles  from  Rome. 

163 


164  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Flora  was  the  goddess  of  spring-time  and 
flowers.  A  festival  of  great  gayety  was  held  in 
her  honor  from  the  twenty-eighth  day  of  April 
to  the  third  of  May.  She  had  a  temple  near  the 
Circus  Maximus,  and  a  Flamen  Floralis  was  at- 
tached to  her  worship.  She  says  of  herself: 
"  I  enjoy  perpetual  spring.  To  me  the  year  is 
always  most  beauteous;  the  tree  always  bears 
its  foliage,  the  earth  its  herbage.  A  fruitful  gar- 
den in  the  fields  of  my  dowry  is  mine.  The 
breeze  cherishes  it;  it  is  irrigated  by  a  spring 
of  trickling  water.  This  my  husband  has  filled 
with  flowers  of  the  choicest  kinds ;  and  he  says, 
'  Do  thou,  Goddess,  rule  the  empire  of  the  flow- 
ers.' Ofttimes  have  I  desired  to  reckon  the  tints 
as  they  were  arranged,  and  I  could  not.  Their 
multitude  exceeded  all  number.  When  first  the 
dewy  rime  has  been  dashed  from  the  leaves,  and 
the  variegated  flowers  warm  in  the  beams  of  the 
sun,  the  Seasons,  arrayed  in  painted  robes,  assem- 
ble, and  gather  my  presents  into  their  light  bas- 
kets. Forthwith  to  them  are  added  the  Graces,  and 
they  plait  the  chaplets,  and  the  garlands  destined 
to  bind  their  heavenly  locks.  I  was  the  first  to 
spread  the  new  seed  throughout  the  unlimited 
natures.  Before  then,  the  earth  was  of  but  one 
tint."* 


hOvid,  The  Fasti,  Riley's  Translation,  Vol.  I,  pp.  186,  187. 


PJiTESTS  AND  FESTIVALS 


165 


Faunus  presided  over  flocks  and  herds.  The 
Faunalia,  in  honor  of  Faunus  and  Fauna,  was 
celebrated  annually  in  December. 

Janus  was  the  god  of  the  sun.  He  was  rep- 
resented with  a  face  in  the  front,  and  another 
on  the  back  of  his  head.  The  month  of  January 
was  sacred  to  him,  as  also  all  other  beginnings. 
He  had  a  temple  in  the 
Forum,  with  two  doors  op- 
posite to  each  other,  which, 
in  time  of  war,  stood  open, 
and  in  time  of  peace  were 
shut.  The  temple  was 
thrice  closed  on  this  ac- 
count— once  during  the 
reign  of  Numa,  again  after 
the  first  Punic  war,  and  a 
third  time  after  the  battle 
of  Actium,  when  Caesar 
Augustus  became  sole  ruler  of  the  empire. 

Several  deities  belonged  peculiarly  to  the 
home  and  State.  Such  were  Terminus,  the  god 
of  boundaries ;  Consus,  the  god  of  secret  counsel; 
and  the  Penates,  the  gods  of  property.  The 
Penates  presided  over  the  kitchen  and  the  store- 
room. None  but  pure  and  chaste  persons  were 
permitted  to  enter  the  store-room.  The  images 
of  the  Penates,  two  in   number,  represented  as 

15 


Janus. 


166  DEPARTED  GODS. 

dancing  and  holding  aloft  a  drinking-horn  in 
token  of  joy  and  plenty,  were  placed  on  the 
family  hearth.  The  old  Roman,  in  company 
with  his  family,  offered  a  morning  sacrifice  and 
prayer  to  the  household  gods.  "Before  meals 
the  blessing  of  the  gods  was  asked,  and  after 
the  meal,  but  before  dessert,  there  was  a  short 
silence,  and  a  portion  of  food  was  placed  on  the 
hearth  and  burned.  If  the  hearth  and  the  im- 
ages were  not  in  the  eating-room,  either  the  im- 
ages were  brought  and  put  on  the  table,  or  before 
the  shrine  was  placed  a  table,  on  which  were  set 
a  salt-cellar,  food,  and  a  burning  lamp."  The 
Kalends,  the  Nones,  and  the  Ides,  the  Caristia 
held  on  the  twenty-second  of  February,  and  the 
Saturnalia,  were  set  apart  for  special  family  wor- 
ship. On  these  and  other  joyous  days  the  im- 
ages were  crowned,  and  there  were  presented 
offerings  of  cakes,  honey,  wine,  incense,  and 
sometimes  a  pig.  Not  only  had  each  family  its 
Penates,  but  also  each  clan ;  and  the  State  had 
its  public  Penates.  These  household  gods  had  a 
temple  of  their  own  in  Rome,  but  were  also  wor- 
shiped in  the  temple  of  Vesta.  Closely  con- 
nected with  this  worship  was  that  of  the  Lares, 
the  deified  ancestors  still  living  in  their  graves 
in  the  house,  and  worshiped  as  the  guardians 
and   protectors    of  the  family.     On   the   hearth 


PRIESTS  AXD  FESTIVALS.  .        10.7 

between  the  Penates  was  an  image  of  the  Lar. 
When  the  Lares  became  spirits  of  terror,  they 
were  called  Lemures  and  Larvye.  The  Lar  fa- 
miliaris  was  the  head  of  the  family  and  of  the 
family  cultus,  while  the  Lares  publici  belonged 
to  the  State  religion.  According  to  Varro,  there 
were  two  hundred  and  sixty-five  stations  for 
statues  of  Lares  at  the  corners  of  the  streets  of 
Rome. 

Many  gods  of  lesser  rank  were  personifica- 
tions of  abstract  qualities,  and  many  were  dis- 
tinctively nature  gods,  while  a  multitude  of 
others  were  borrowed  from  the  Greeks. 

The  State  established  priesthoods  for  the 
worship  of  the  principal  gods.  The  highest 
order  in  the  priesthoods  was  the  Flamines,  or 
"  Kindlers,"  so  called  because  they  presented 
burnt  offerings.  The  great  Kindlers  of  Mars, 
Quirinus,  and  Jupiter  were  taken  only  from  the 
patrician  rank.  The  highest  of  all  was  the  Fla- 
men  of  Jupiter,  who  was  entitled  to  a  lictor,  a 
seat  in  the  Senate,  the  curule  chair,  and  the  toga 
prcetezta,  woven  of  thick  wool  by  his  wife.  The 
number  of  Flamines  was  afterwards  enlarged, 
and  Vertumnus,  Flora,  Pomona,  and  Vulcan  had 
each  his  lesser  Kindler.  There  were  fifteen 
Flamines  in  all,  but  at  a  still  later  period  this 
number    was    further    increased.      The    Flamen 


168  DEPARTED  GODS. 

attended  to  the  whole  worship  of  the  temple  to 
which  he  was  devoted. 

In  addition  to  the  Flamen,  each  temple  had 
a  college  of  priests,  which  might  consist  of  all 
the  males  of  a  particular  priestly  family,  but 
was  more  generally  a  close  corporation,  limited 
in  the  number  of  its  members.  Vacancies  in  the 
college  were  filled  by  election.  There  was  a  col- 
lege of  Salii,  or  "  dancing  priests,"  attached  to 
the  temple  of  Mars,  on  the  Palatine  Hill,  and 
another  connected  with  the  temple  of  Quirinus, 
on  the  Quirinal. 

The  Luperci  celebrated  the  Lupercalia  on  the 
fifteenth  of  February,  when  goats  and  a  dog 
were  offered  in  sacrifice.  "After  the  sacrifice, 
two  of  the  Luperci  were  led  to  the  altar;  their 
foreheads  were  touched  with  a  bloody  sword, 
and  the  blood  wiped  off  with  wool  dipped  in 
milk.  Then  the  ritual  required  that  the  two 
young  men  shall  laugh.  The  sacrificial  feast 
followed,  after  which  the  Luperci  cut  thongs 
from  the  skins  of  the  victims,  and  ran  in  two 
bands  round  the  walls  of  the  old  Palatine  city, 
striking  people  who  crowded  near.  These  thongs 
were  called  Febrna,  hence  the  name  of  the  month 
February."  The  rite  was  originally  peculiar  to 
the  tribe  of  the  Ramses,  and  was  dedicated  to 
Inuus,  an  old  Italian  deity. 


PRIESTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  -        169 

"Our  Roman  forefathers  called  atoning  sacri- 
fices by  the  name  of  'Februa/  and  even  now 
many  traces  of  its  meaning  confirm  this  significa- 
tion.of  the  expression.  The  Pontiffs  ask  wool 
of  the  king  of  the  sacrifices  and  of  the  Flnmen, 
the  name  of  which,  in  the  ancient  dialect,  was 
'Februa;'  and  the  purifying  substances  which 
the  lictor  takes  for  the  houses  when  ascertained 
as  being  impure,  the  parched  spelt  with  the  grain 
of  salt,  are  called  by  the  same  name.  This,  too, 
is  the  name  of  the  bough  which,  lopped  from  a 
consecrated  tree,  covers  with  its  foliage  the  holy 
temples  of  the  priests.  I  myself  have  seen  the 
Flaminica  asking  for  the  'Februa;'  a  bough  of 
pine  was  presented  to  her,  making  this  request  for 
the  'Februa'  by  name.  In  a  word,  whatever 
there  is  by  means  of  which  our  breasts  are  puri- 
fied, it  had  with  our  unshaven  ancestors  this 
name.  From  these  circumstances  the  month  de- 
rives its  name,  either  because  the  Luperci,  with 
thongs  of  hide,  purify  all  the  country,  and  con- 
sider that  rite  an  expiation;  or  because  the  sea- 
son is  purified,  the  shades  of  the  dead  being  ap- 
peased when  the  days  devoted  to  their  offerings 
have  passed  by.  Our  ancients  believed  that  puri- 
fication was  efficacious  to  remove  every  curse  and 
every  cause  of  evil."  * 

•Ovid,  The  Fasti,  Riley's  Translation,  Vol.  I,  pp.  46,  47. 


170  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  college  of  Vestal  Virgins,  connected  with 
the  worship  of  Vesta,  having  charge  of  the  sa- 
cred fire,  and  the  "tokens"  of  Rome,  awaken 
great  interest  whenever  mentioned.  "  The  House 
of  the  Vestals"  was  discovered  by  Lanciani  in 
1883,  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine  Hill.  This 
most  brilliant  discovery  brought  to  light  many 
pedestals,  statues,  busts,  coins,  inscriptions,  and 
other  objects  of  antiquarian  interest,  and  has 
added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  this  religious 
corporation. 

The  Vestal  Virgins,  six  in  number,  "clad  in 
snow-white  garments,  which  reflected,  as  it  were, 
the  purity  of  their  minds  and  souls ;  in  the  very 
prime  of  beauty,  youth,  and  strength;  daughters 
of  the  noblest  families;  depositaries  of  state 
secrets;  confidants  of  the  imperial  household, 
and  faithful  keepers  of  the  secret  tokens  of  the 
Roman  Commonwealth," — were  held  in  reveren- 
tial honor,  enjoyed  many  privileges,  and  wielded 
vast  influence. 

Zosimus,  the  historian,  mentions  the  fact  that, 
after  the  Virgins  had  left  their  house,  bearing 
doubtless  the  sacred  tokens,  Princess  Serena 
entered  the  building,  and  took  a  rich  necklace 
from  a  statue  of  the  goddess.  Rome  being  be- 
sieged by  Alaric,  Serena  was  suspected  of  secret 
connivance  with  the  enemy.     She  was  doubtless 


STATUE  OK  A  VKSTAL  VIRGIN. 


172  DEPARTED  GODS. 

innocent,  but  was  put  to  death.  This  was  looked 
upon  as  a  just  punishment  for  her  sacrilege. 
She  had  entered  the  most  sacred-  place  of  Vesta. 
"  Here  she  wTas  so  captivated  by  the  beauty  of 
a  necklace  that  she  took  it  with  her  own  hands 
from  the  shoulders  of  the  goddess,  and  fixed  it 
on  her  own  neck.  An  old  woman,  the  last  sur- 
viving Vestal,  having  witnessed  by  chance  the 
profanation,  cursed  the  princess,  and  predicted 
that,  sooner  or  later,  she  would  sadly  expiate 
her  crime.  Serena,  at  first,  took  no  notice  of 
the  awful  malediction;  but  the  old  Vestal  had 
told  the  truth — Serena  died  by  strangulation!"* 
The  college  of  the  Fratres  Arvales,  twelve  in 
number,  and  selected  from  the  highest  patrician 
families,  were  devoted  to  Ceres,  in  whose  honor 
as  the  Dea  Dia  they  celebrated  the  great  annual 
festival,  and  offered  public  sacrifices  for  the  fer- 
tility of  the  fields.  The  new  grain  was  blessed 
on  each  of  the  three  days  of  the  festival.  On 
the  second  day  the  ceremonies  were  performed 
in  a  grove,  when  two  pigs,  a  white  cow,  and  a 
fat  sheep  were  sacrificed.  The  grove  where 
they  assembled  was  "at  the  fifth  milestone  of 
the  Via  Campana,  on  the  slope  of  the  hills  which 
now  overlook  the    farm  of  La  Magliana."     This 


•Lanciani,  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discover- 
ies, pp.  133,  135,  176,  177. 


PRIESTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  173 

slope    was    excavated    in    1868   and    1869,  and 
richly  rewarded  the  explorer. 

"The  very  temple  of  the  Dea  Dia  was  dis- 
covered— a  round,  marble  structure,  raised  on  a 
very  high  platform,  on  the  vertical  surface  of 
which  the  annals,  or  yearly  records,  of  the  fra- 
ternity were  engraved.  To  speak  of  the  impor- 
tance of  these  annals — which  begin  with  the 
reign  of  Augustus  and  stop  with  that  of  Gordi- 
anus  II,  a  lapse  of  two  centuries  and  a  half, 
and  which  contain  an  almost  incredible  amount 
of  archaeological,  historical,  and  chronological  in- 
formation— would  not  be  consistent  with  the 
spirit  of  this  chapter.  I  must  notice,  however, 
one  particular,  which  is  evidently  a  recollection 
of  the  age  of  bronze.  The  annals  of  each  year 
were  engraved  on  the  marble  basement  of  the 
temple  during  the  month  of  April,  and  were  en- 
graved, of  course,  with  iron  or  steel  tools.  To 
expiate  this  profanation,  in  the  same  month  of 
each  year,  sacrifices  were  offered,  ob  ferri  inla- 
tionem  et  elationem,  for  the  introduction  and  re- 
moval of  iron  within  the  sacred  precinct — a  sow 
and  a  sheep  were  slain  over  the  altar,  and  .their 
flesh  was  eaten  afterwards  by  attendants  and 
sacristans  of  an  inferior  order."  * 


I-uiciaiii,   Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discov- 
eries, pp.  42,  43. 


174  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  duties  of  the  Sodales  Titii  were  quite 
similar.  The  thirty  Flamines  Curiales  offered 
sacrifices  for  the  preservation  of  the  Curies  of  the 
old  Roman  people. 

Every  worshiper  might  address  personally 
any  deity  with  whom  he  wished  to  communicate. 
But  to  hold  converse  with  a  god  was  not,  after 
all,  an  easy  matter.  Only  those  familiarly  ac- 
quainted with  a  god  could  understand  aright  his 
language.  The  priest  was  educated  to  interpret 
the  divine.  He  could  not  only  understand,  but 
also  influence  the  will  of  the  god,  and  even  over- 
reach him  for  the  good  of  man.  Hence  the 
importance  of  the  priest  in  religious  worship  is 
most  evident.  Still  more  important  were  those 
men  specially  skilled  in  all  kinds  of  religious 
learning.  These  wise  men  formed  the  colleges 
of  sacred  lore. 

The  Roman  priests,  like  the  priests  of  the 
Greek,  and  in  fact  all  other  ancient  religions,  were 
compassed  about  by  a  great  multitude  of  restric- 
tions and  observances  to  which  they  were  com- 
pelled to  give  most  earnest  heed.  The  Flamen 
Dialis  was  not  permitted  to  touch  a  dead  body 
or  to  enter  a  house  where  one  was  burned.  He 
must  not  see  any  work  done  on  holy  days,  nor 
might  he  venture  to  uncover  in  the  open  air.  If 
a  man  were  brought  into  his  house  in  bonds,  the 


PRIESTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  175 

bonds  were  removed,  and  drawn  up  through  a 
hole  in  the  roof  and  thence  let  down  into  the 
street.  His  hair  could  be  cut  only  by  a  free 
man,  and  with  a  bronze  knife,  and  his  hair  and 
nails  when  cut  must  be  buried  under  a  lucky  tree. 
The  feet  of  his  bed  were  daubed  with  mud.     He 


ROMAN  PRIEST  AND  PRIESTESS. 

might  not  touch  wheaten  flour  or  leavened  bread. 
He  was  permitted  neither  to  touch  nor  name 
a  goat,  a  dog,  raw  meat,  beans,  or  ivy.  None  but 
sacred  fire  could  be  carried  out  of  his  house.  He 
must  not  ride  a  horse,  or  even  touch  one, 
and  no  knot  must  be  found  on  any  part 
of  his  garments.  He  must  not  wear  a  broken 
ring.     His  wife  was  compelled  to  observe  nearly 


176  DEPARTED  GODS. 

the  same  rules,  besides  others  which  were  peculiar 
to  herself."* 

"  The  priesthoods  were  charged  with  the  wor- 
ship of  a  specific  divinity;  the  skilled  colleges, 
on  the  other  hand,  were  charged  with  the  pres- 
ervation of  traditional  rules  regarding  those  more 
general  religious  observances,  the  proper  fulfill- 
ment of  which  implied  a  certain  amount  of  in- 
formation, and  rendered  it  necessary  that  the 
State,  in  its  own  interest,  should  provide  for  the 
faithful  transmission  of  that  information.  These 
close  corporations  supplying  their  own  vacancies, 
of  course,  from  the  ranks  of  the  burgesses,  became 
in  this  way  the  depositaries  of  skilled  arts  and 
sciences."  f 

The  Pontifices,  under  the  Pontifex  Maximus, 
who  was  the  highest  religious  authority  in  the 
State,  exercised  control  over  all  the  priests,  and 
performed  the  general  functions  of  the  State  re- 
ligion. It  is  probable  that  there  was  no  supreme 
Pontifex  under  the  emperors,  but  that  the  func- 
tions of  the  sacred  office  were  discharged  by  the 
emperors  in  person.  The  rex  sacrorum,  under  the 
Republic,  succeeded  to  the  sacrificial  duties  which 
had  been  performed  by  the  king,  but  the  Pontifex 


*Frazer,  The  Golden  Bough,  Vol.  I,  pp.  117, 118;  cf.  the  ref- 
erences <riven  in  this  work. 

tMomrnsen,  History  of  Rome,  Vol.  I,  p.  229. 


PRIESTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  177 

Mcmmui  inherited  the  substance  of  power  in  sa- 
cred things.  The  Pontifices  claimed  to  possess 
professional  "  knowledge  of  things  human  and  di- 
vine." The  supreme  Pontiff  dwelt  close  to  the 
sacred  hearth  of  the  State.  He  appointed  the 
Flamens  and  the  Vestal  Virgins,  and  had  charge  of 
their  cults  and  those  exercises  of  public  religion 
for  which  no  priests  were  specially  provided. 
The  Pontifices  furnished  all  technical  information 
and  guidance  on  all  great  and  important  religious 
occasions.  They  controlled  the  calendar  and  kept 
the  pontifical  archives  or  annual  chronicles  of 
public  events,  and  to  them  was  assigned  the  dec- 
laration of  the  laws  of  religion.  They  taught  how 
to  escape  the  threatenings  of  omens  and  prodigies. 
The  Augurs  interpreted,  according  to  the 
books  of  divination,  the  will  of  Jupiter  on  the  oc- 
casion of  every  public  transaction.  At  first  there 
seem  to  have  been  but  two  augurs,  one  from 
each  of  the  tribes  Ramnes  and  Tities.  Numa 
added  two  more,  and  again  two  for  the  tribe  Lu- 
ceres.  Sulla  made  the  number  fifteen,  and  Caesar 
added  one.  The  office,  like  that  of  the  Pon- 
tifices and  Flamines,  was  for  life,  and  the  college 
filled  its  own  vacancies.  The  augurs  observed 
the  sky,  and  watched  the  course  of  the  lightning 
and  the  flight  of  birds.  Such  observations  could 
be  made  only  in  the  city  of  Rome,  except  by  con- 


178  DEPARTED  GODS. 

secrating  a  spot  of  earth  to  represent  the  hearth 
of  the  Eternal  City.  The  notes  of  birds,  and  their 
manner  of  feeding  were  not  forgotten.  Fowls 
were  kept  in  cages  by  a  servant  that  the  augurs 
might  not  be  without  a  ready  means  of  reading 
the  will  of  heaven.  The  motions  and  sounds  of 
quadrupeds  and  serpents  also  revealed  the  will 
of  the  gods,  though  this  method  of  divination 
was  less  frequently  employed,  and  had  gone  out 
of  use  at  the  time  of  Cicero.  Any  unusual  phe- 
nomena were  considered  timely  warnings.  Au- 
spices were  taken  by  casting  lots,  and  by  exam- 
ining the  entrails  of  sacrifices.  In  the  latter  case 
Etruscan  haruspices  were  generally  employed. 
The  occasions  for  the  consultation  of  augurs  were 
such  as  the  founding  of  colonies,  the  beginning 
of  a  battle,  the  assembling  of  an  army,  the  sit- 
tings of  the  Senate,  the  decisions  of  peace  and 
war,  the  election  of  magistrates,  and  their  entering 
on  office. 

"And  our  ancestors  were  persuaded  that 
much  virtue  resides  in  certain  words,  and  there- 
fore prefaced  their  various  enterprises  with  cer- 
tain auspicious  phrases ;  such  as, '  May  good,  and 
prosperous,  and  happy  fortune  attend!'  They 
commenced  all  the  public  ceremonies  of  religion 
with  these  words,  *  Keep  silence  ;'  and  when  they 
announced  any  holidays,  they  commanded  that  all 


PRIESTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  179 

lawsuits  and  quarrels  should  be  suspended.  Like- 
wise, when  the  chief  who  forms  a  colony  makes  a 
lustration  and  review  of  it,  or  when  a  general 
musters  an  army,  or  a  censor  the  people,  they 
always  choose  those  who  have  lucky  names  to 
prepare  the  sacrifices.  The  consuls  in  their  mil- 
itary enrollments  likewise  take  care  that  the  first 
soldier  enrolled  shall  be  one  with  a  fortunate 
name.    • 

Divination  by  dreams  is  common  to  all  na- 
tions. While  the  body  slept,  the  soul  was 
thought  to  have  been  awake  and  most  vigorous. 
"  Since  the  soul  has  lived  from  all  eternity,  and 
is  engaged  with  spirits  innumerable,  it  therefore 
beholds  all  things  in  the  universe,  if  it  only  ob- 
serves a  watchful  attitude."  The  Romans  per- 
haps inherited  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis 
from  the  Greeks  through  Ennius,  the  poet  of 
Calabria. 

The  Fetiales,  twelve  in  number,  were  the  liv- 
ing repository  to  preserve  the  knowledge  of  all 
treaties.  They  pronounced  authoritatively  on  all 
matters  of  law  as  between  nations.  They  de- 
cided when  a  treaty  had  been  broken,  demanded 
satisfaction,  and  declared  war.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  a  treaty  they  offered  sacrifices, 
thus  giving  to  treaty  obligations  a  sacred  character. 

*  Cicero,  De  Divinatione,  i,  45. 


180  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  Duumviri,  two  in  number  as  the  name 
suggests,  were  the  keepers  of  the  Sibylline 
Books,  and  interpreted  their  prophecies.  These 
books  were  especially  consulted  in  cases  of  pesti- 
lence, and  upon  the  occurrence  of  any  extraordi- 
nary prodigies. 

These  various  colleges  of  priests  never  could 
become  dangerous  to  the  State.  Their  duties 
were  only  to  interpret  and  to  advise;  never  to 
take  the  initiative,  and  never  to  execute.  They 
could  only  answer  questions.  "  The  Romans, 
notwithstanding  all  their  zeal  for  religion,  ad- 
hered with  unbending  strictness  to  the  principle 
that  the  priest  ought  to  remain  completely 
powerless  in  the  State;  and,  excluded  from 
all  command,  ought,  like  any  other  burgess, 
to  render  obedience  to  the  humblest  magis- 
trate."* 

The  Roman  religion  was  business-like,  and 
consisted  largely  in  songs,  games,  dances,  and 
banquets.  The  pig  was  an  offering  most  accept- 
able to  the  gods.  All  extravagance  in  expense 
and  excess  in  joy  were  sternly  rebuked.  The 
gods,  as  well  as  the  Roman  people,  were  taught 
to  practice  frugality.  These  were  allowed  little 
play  for  the  imagination,  and  little  room  for  en- 
thusiastic fanaticism,  unrestrained  indulgence,  and 

-•Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  Vol.  1,  p.  232. 


PRIESTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  181 

the  frenzy  of  superstition.  Sin  was  considered 
a  crime  against  the  gods,  and  punishment  was 
the  expiation  of  guilt.  The  slaying  of  an 
enemy  in  war,  and  the  execution  of  a  criminal, 
wore  equally  expiatory  sacrifices  offered  to  of- 
fended divinities.  When  the  guilt  which  stirred 
the  gods  to  anger  could  not  be  fastened  upon  any 
particular  person  or  persons,  they  might  still  be 
appeased  by  one  who  voluntarily  offered  him- 
self as  a  victim.  Thus  national  calamity  could 
be  removed,  and  disaster  in  battle  turned  to 
victory. 

There  were  several  usages  which  may 
have  been  reminiscences  of  ancient  human  sac- 
rifices. 

The  thirty  puppets,  plaited  of  rushes,  and 
thrown  annually  into  the  Tiber,  may  have  been 
a  survival  of  thirty  victims  which,  in  most 
ancient  times,  were  offered  annually  at  the 
Lemuralia. 

In  comparison  with  the  religion  of  the  Greeks, 
the  religion  of  the  Romans  was  commonplace, 
matter-of-fact,  unartistic,  bald,  barren,  dull,  tame, 
stupid,  and  tasteless;  while  yet  it  was  most 
sober,  business-like,  earnest,  and  practical.  Wor- 
ship, prayers,  sacrifices,  and  vows  seem  to  have 
been  considered  mere  commercial  obligations,  to 
be    punctually   met.      The    old    Roman    religion 

16 


182  DEPARTED  GODS. 

had  no  images  of  the  gods.  As  no  bargain 
could  be  made  by  proxy,  so  no  priest  could 
stand  between  the  worshiper  and  his  gods. 
These  early  gods  seem  to  have  had  no  genealo- 
gies and  no  family  relationships.  Foreign  and 
later  importations  created  many  changes.  The 
religion  was  fruitless  in  art,  poetry,  and  all  im- 
aginative speculation. 


III. 

THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM. 

AMONG  the  philosophic  schools  of  the  classic 
nations,  that  of  the  Stoics  taught  the 
purest  morality;  and  on  this  account,  more  than 
because  of  its  philosophical  discussions,  it  has 
become  one  of  the  most  celebrated. 

This  school  was  founded  by  Zeno,  of  Citium, 
at  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  before  the 
commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  It  took 
its  name  from  the  stoa,  or  painted  corridor,  on 
the  north  side  of  the  market-place  at  Athens, 
where  its  founder  discoursed  with  his  dis- 
ciples. 

Our  chief  source  of  information  concerning 
the  early  Stoics  and  their  teachings  must  always 
be  the  work  of  Diogenes  Laertius.  His  "Lives 
of  the  Philosophers"  is  invaluable,  though  evi- 
dently many  times  the  author  understood  the 
subject  but  imperfectly.  In  his  account  of  the 
Stoics,  he  does  not  always  distinguish  what  be- 
longs to  Zeno,  what  to  his  immediate  disciples, 
and  what  to  later  teachers.  We  can  not,  how- 
ever, be  far  out  of  the  way  in  regard  to  the 
main  principles  and  teachings  of  the  school  as 
expounded   by   the   great   master.     We  present 

183 


184  DEPARTED  GODS. 

some    of    the    features    which    characterize    the 
school. 

The  wise  man,  says  the  Stoic,  lives  according 
to  nature;  by  which  is  meant  not  only  universal 
nature,  but  also  his  own  nature  as  a  part  of 
universal  nature.  This  comes  to  the  same  thing 
as  saying  that  he  lives  according  to  virtue,  and 
according  to  the  will  of  the  Universal  Governor 
and  Ruler  of  all  things.  He  does  nothing  which 
the  common  law  of  mankind  or  right  reason  con- 
demns. In  this  consists  his  chief  good  or  highest 
happiness. 

The  beautiful  is  the  only  good.  "Beauty  is 
the  flower  of  virtue."  There  is  nothing  inter- 
mediate between  vice  and  virtue.  He  who  has 
one  virtue  has  all  virtues.  All  goods  are  equal, 
and  each  good  is  to  be  desired  in  the  highest 
degree.  Nothing  is  good  which  it  is  possible  to 
use  ill.  Anything  has  value  only  as  it  helps  man 
to  live  according  to  nature. 

The  wise  man  is  not  disturbed  by  grief. 
This  dismisses  all  pity,  emulation,  and  jealousy, 
all  pain,  perturbation,  and  sorrow,  and  all  anguish 
and  confusion. 

He  is  not  moved  by  fear.  This  banishes  all 
apprehension,  shame,  and  hesitation,  and  all  per- 
plexity, trepidation,  and  anxiety. 

He   neither   feels    nor   seeks    pleasure.     This 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  185 

destroys  all  possibility  of  enjoyment,  rejoic- 
ing at  evil,  irrational  delight,  and  extrava- 
gant joy. 

The  wise  man  is  free  from  vanity,  and  yet 
austere.  He  is  not  moved  by  clemency ;  he  would 
make  a  severe  punisher  of  crime. 

As  to  his  emotional  nature,  the  wise  man  is 
barely  saved  from  becoming  a  gate-post  by  hav- 
ing assigned  him  three  good  dispositions.  These 
are  joy  as  opposed  to  pleasure,  caution  as  op- 
posed to  fear,  and  will  as  opposed  to  desire. 
These  are  called  rational  dispositions.  '  The  first 
brings  delight,  mirth,  and  good  spirits;  the  sec- 
ond, reverence  and  modesty;  and  the  third, 
good-will,  placidity,  salutation,  and  affection. 

We  follow  in  the  above  one  of  the  classifica- 
tions brought  forward  in  the  school. 

The  wise  man  is  godlike.  He  has  something 
within  him  "  which  is  as  it  were  a  god."  He  is 
pious,  and  pays  proper  reverence  to  the  gods; 
he  worships  the  gods  and  sacrifices  to  them ;  in 
fact,  he  is  the  only  true  priest,  as  he  is  also  the 
only  true  king.  He  is  just  and  holy,  and  keeps 
himself  pure.  The  gods  themselves  can  not 
withhold  their  admiration.  He  is  the  only  free 
man,  and  the  only  man  fit  to  become  a  magis- 
trate, judge,  or  orator.  Everything  belongs  to 
the  wise  man,  and  he  is  never  in  error.     True 


186  DEPARTED  GODS. 

friendship  can  exist  only  in  the  heart  of  the  vir- 
tuous man. 

All  errors  are  equal.  "  For  if  one  thing  that 
is  true  is  not  more  true  than  another  thing  that 
is  true,  neither  is  one  thing  that  is  false  more 
false  than  another  thing  that  is  false ;  so,  too, 
one  deceit  is  not  greater  than  another,  nor  one 
sin  than  another.  For  the  man  who  is  a  hun- 
dred furlongs  from  Canopus  and  the  man  who  is 
only  one,  are  both  equally  not  in  Canopus;  and 
so,  too,  he  who  commits  a  greater  sin  and  he 
who  commits  a  less  are  both  equally  not  in  the 
right  path."  * 

The  Stoics  professed  belief  in  one  supreme 
god,  and  yet  did  not  break  away  from  the  poly- 
theism of  their  fathers.  Their  one  god,  however, 
was  the  god  of  pantheism,  and  so  remained  to 
the  last.  They  never  emancipated  themselves 
from  superstition,  and  resorted  to  divination. 

We  need  not  name  the  many  philosophers 
who  helped  make  the  school  illustrious.  As  in 
the  case  of  Zeno,  their  teachings  come  only  to  us 
second-hand. 

Stoicism  was  never  really  at  home  in  Greece. 
Its  greatest  expounders  were  foreigners.  But 
its  adopted  country  was  most  congenial.  In 
Rome  it   especially  flourished.     We   may  study 

♦Diogenes  Laertius,  Lives  of  the  Philosophers,  pp.  301-317. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM  187 

the  moral  system  of  Panretius,  of  the  middle 
school,  in  the  first  two  books  of  the  De  Officiis 
of  Cicero,  which  are  largely  taken  from  his  lost 
work.  But,  omitting  all  other  names,  we  will 
content  ourselves  with  a  brief  study  of  the  three 
great  Stoics  of  Rome. 

Lucius  Annaeus  Seneca  was  a  native  of  Cor- 
duba,  in  Hispania,  and  was  born  about  seven 
years  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era.  His  father,  Marcus  Annreus  Seneca  was  a 
Roman  knight,  a  professional  rhetorician,  and  an 
intelligent  man  of  the  world,  with  a  sincere  con- 
tempt for  philosophy.  His  mother,  Helvia,  was 
of  a  noble  nature,  strong  in  intellect,  untarnished 
in  virtue,  and  of  remarkable  sweetness  of  char- 
acter. His  brother,  Marcus  Annseus  Novatus, 
1PM  known  in  history  as  Junius  Gallio,  having 
been  adopted  by  his  father's  friend  of  that  name. 
He  is  the  Gallio  of  Acts,  who  "cared  for  none 
of  these  things."     (Acts  xviii,  17.) 

Seneca  became  a  powerful  advocate  and  the 
most  illustrious  literary  character  of  his  age. 
He  acquired  an  enormous  fortune,  but  thereby 
suffered  in  his  influence  as  a  Stoic  philosopher. 
Indeed  he  could  not  well  be  a  consistent  philos- 
opher and  at  the  same  time  a  man  of  the  world. 
He  took  public  office,  which  he  adorned  by  his 
wisdom  and  intellectual  gifts.     But  he  could  not 


188  DEPARTED  GODS. 

stem  the  tide  of  corruption  and  wickedness,  and, 
upon  suspicion,  was  banished  to  Corsica  by  the 
Emperor  Claudius.  His  philosophy  failed  to  sus- 
tain him  in  his  exile ;  for,  while  he  gave  himself 
to  authorship,  his  works  were  not  free  from  the 
most  sycophantic  and  fulsome  flattery  of  Clau- 
dius, whom  in  his  heart  he  must  have  considered 
a  monster. 

Agrippina,  a  demoness  incarnate,  a  tigress 
gorged  with  human  blood,  secured  the  recall  of 
Seneca;  and  when  her  son,  the  if  possible  more 
satanic  Nero,  ascended  the  throne  of  Rome,  the 
philosopher  became  his  tutor.  He  may  have  de- 
spaired of  maintaining  his  influence  over  his  royal 
master  if  he  were  to  attempt  to  teach  him  the 
highest  virtue,  and  hence  was  content  to  enforce 
the  virtue  of  mere  expediency.  His  own  virtue 
suffered.  He  became  an  accomplice  in  crime, 
and  must  be  even  branded  as  a  murderer.  Nero 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  he  could  do  without 
him,  and,  suspecting  him  of  being  connected  with 
the  conspiracy  of  Piso,  condemned  him  to  death. 
He  opened  his  own  veins,  and  thus  died  sur- 
rounded by  his  friends. 

The  age  in  which  Seneca  lived  was  character- 
ized by  the  purest  moral  teaching,  and  yet  ex- 
plored the  lowest  depths  of  degradation  and  in- 
famy.    While  many  did  not  believe  in  the  old 


THE  MORALITY  OF  8T0H  ISM.  189 

gods  at  all,  they  yet  gave  themselves  up  to  su- 
perstition, and  put  their  trust  in  the  fooleries  of 
sorcerers,  astrologers,  exorcists,  and  every  im- 
postor and  quack.  Gibbon  says  :  "  The  common 
worship  was  regarded  by  the  people  as  equally 
true,  by  the  philosophers  as  equally  false,  and 
by  the  magistrates  as  equally  useful."  Religion 
became  a  pretense  and  a  mockery. 

Never  were  luxury  and  extravagance  carried 
to  a  higher  pitch.  Men  abandoned  manly  pur- 
suits, and  resorted  to  debauchery  and  gluttony. 
They  invented  and  diligently  practiced  every 
refinement  of  vice.  They  sought  the  arena,  in 
which  gladiators  and  beasts  tore  one  another  in 
pieces,  and  their  constant  demand  was  for  more 
blood.  Slaves  were  treated  with  the  greatest 
cruelty  and  brutality.  They  were  tortured,  they 
were  murdered — sometimes  for  mere  pleasure. 
The  great  multitude  were  ground  by  poverty, 
with  the  hope  of  nothing  better,  while  the 
wealthy  despoiled  whole  provinces  to  satisfy 
their  tables.  This  wild  extravagance,  this  un- 
speakable cruelty,  this  frantic  wickedness,  this 
revelry  in  crimes  beyond  nature  and  below  na- 
ture,— all  was  but  an  attempt  to  feed  on  husks  a 
soul  created  for  the  ambrosia  and  nectar  of  the 
gods.  It  is  not  a  matter  for  wonder  that  many 
sought  refuge  in  suicide. 

17 


190  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Seneca  recommended  suicide  as  the  way  of 
escape  from  worldly  troubles  :  "  I  have  placed 
every  good  thing  within  your  own  breasts.  It 
is  your  good  fortune  not  to  need  any  good  for- 
tune. '  Yet  many  things  befall  you  which  are 
sad,  dreadful,  hard  to  be  borne.'  Well,  as  I  have 
not  been  able  to  remove  them  from  your  path,  I 
have  given  your  minds  strength  to  combat  all. 
Bear  them  bravely.  In  this  you  can  surpass  God 
himself.  He  is  beyond  suffering  evil ;  you  are 
above  it.  Despise  poverty;  no  man  lives  as  poor 
as  he  was  born.  Despise  pain ;  either  it  will 
cease  or  you  will  cease.  Despise  death ;  it  either 
ends  you  or  takes  you  elsewhere.  Despise  for- 
tune ;  I  have  given  her  no  weapon  that  can  reach 
the  mind.  Above  all,  I  have  taken  care  that  no 
man  should  hold  you  captive  against  your  will. 
The  way  of  escape  lies  open  before  you ;  if  you 
do  not  choose  to  fight,  you  may  fly."* 

In  such  words  God  is  represented  as  address- 
ing men.  Petronius,  who  was  an  arbiter  of  ques- 
tions of  taste  at  the  court  of  Nero,  having  been 
implicated  in  the  Pisonian  conspiracy,  determined 
to  destroy  himself.  His  veins  were  opened,  and 
while  his  life-blood  was  flowing,  ludicrous  poems 
were  read  to  him  to  excite  his  laughter.  When 
something  especially  laughable  was  read,  he  had 

Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  i,  6. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  191 

his  veins  tied  up  for  a  short  time  that  he  might 
fully  enjoy  it.  Pliny  counts  death  the  greatest 
blessing  which  nature  has  bestowed  upon  man, 
and  says  that  "  the  very  best  feature  in  connec- 
tion with  it  is,  that  every  person  has  it  in  his 
own  power  to  procure  it  for  himself."  * 

There  are  those  who  complain  because  they  are 
bound  to  this  body,  and  are  compelled  to  care 
for  it,  and  guard  it  from  danger.  They  would 
fain  be  released.  To  all  such,  Epictetus  says : 
"  Wait  for  God ;  when  he  shall  give  the  signal 
and  release  you  from  this  service,  then  go  to 
him ;  but  for  the  present  endure  to  dwell  in  the 
place  where  he  has  put  you.  ...  Do  not 
depart  without  a  reason."  Again,  the  philoso- 
pher says  :  "  In  sum,  remember  this ;  the  door  is 
open ;  be  not  more  timid  than  little  children, 
but  as  they  say,  when  the  thing  does  not  please 
them,  1 1  will  play  no  longer,'  so  do  you,  when 
things  seem  to  you  of  such  a  kind,  say,  I  will  no 
longer  play,  and  be  gone,  but  if  you  stay,  do  not 
complain /"f 

Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  advises  if  a 
man  is  not  pleased  with  his  surroundings,  then 
"get  away  out  of  life."     He  approves  the  pro- 


*  Pliny,  Natural  History,  xxviii,  3;  cf.  ii,  5;  vii,  53,  54. 
t  Epictetus,  i,  U,  24  ;  cf .  Horace,  Epp,  ii,  2,  213. 


192  DEPARTED  GODS. 

verbial  resolution  :     "  The  house  is  smoky,  and 
I  quit  it."  * 

Seneca  speaks  still  more  plainly.  To  him  who 
complains  of  oppression,  he  says:  "Madman, 
why  do  you  groan?  for  what  are  you  waiting? 
for  some  enemy  to  avenge  you  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  your  entire  nation,  or  for  some  powerful 
king  to  arrive  from  a  distant  land  ?  Wherever 
you  turn  your  eyes  you  may  see  an  end  to  your 
woes.  Do  you  see  that  precipice  ?  down  that  lies 
the  road  to  liberty.  Do  you  see  that  sea?  that 
river  ?  that  well  ?  Liberty  sits  at  the  bottom  of 
them.  Do  you  see  that  tree  ?  Stunted,  blighted, 
dried  up  though  it  be,  yet  liberty  hangs  from  its 
branches.  Do  you  see  your  own  throat,  your 
own  neck,  your  own  heart?  They  are  so  many 
ways  of  escape  from  slavery.  Are  these  modes 
which  I  point  out  too  laborious,  and  needing  much 
strength  and  courage  ?  Do  you  ask  what  path 
leads  to   liberty?    I  answer,  any    vein  in    your 

body."f 

The  Stoics  believed  in  the  gods,  and  taught 
that  they  should  be  reverenced.  The  gods  act 
under  no  restraint,  but  their  own  will  is  their 
sufficient  law.  They  have  established  an  order 
which  they  will  never  change  because  they  will 

*  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  v,  29. 
t  Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  v,  15. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM  193 

never  regret  their  original  decision.  Their  own 
force  holds  them  to  their  purpose,  so  that  they 
will  never  stop  short  or  desert  to  the  other  side. 
It  is  from  no  weakness  that  they  persevere,  but 
they  choose  to  continue  in  the  best  course.  Not 
only  did  they  have  regard  for  man  in  the  orig- 
inal arrangement  of  the  universe ;  but  they  also 
assist  man  of  set  purpose,  and  hence  lay  him 
under  obligation.  They  may  have  higher  aims 
khan  the  preservation  of  the  human  race,  yet 
from  the  beginning  their  thought  has  been  di- 
rected to  our  comfort,  and  the  scheme  of  the 
world  has  been  arranged  in  a  fashion  to  prove  that 
our  interests  were  neither  their  least  nor  last  con- 
cern. The  immortal  gods  have  always  held  us 
most  dear,  and  have  bestowed  upon  us  the  great- 
est possible  honor,  a  place  nearest  to  themselves. 
The  gods  send  affliction  for  our  good.  In  the 
army  the  most  hazardous  services  are  assigned 
to  the  bravest  soldiers.  We  see  men  who  are 
good  and  acceptable  to  the  gods,  toiling,  sweat- 
ing, and  painfully  struggling  upwards,  while  bad 
men  run  riot  and  are  steeped  in  pleasures.  Let 
us  reflect  that  modesty  pleases  us  in  our  sons, 
but  forwardness  in  our  slaves ;  the  former  are 
held  in  check  while  the  boldness  of  the  latter  is 
encouraged.  God  acts  in  like  manner.  "  He  does 
not   pet   the   good    man ;    he   tries  him,  hardens 


194  DEPARTED  GODS. 

him,  and  fits  him  for  himself."  The  government 
of  the  world  is  a  monarchy ;  "  our  liberty  is  to 
obey  God." 

We  owe  to  the  gods  a  debt  of  gratitude  which 
we  should  not  neglect  to  pay.  "  Avaricious  as 
you  are,  it  is  easy  for  you  to  give  them  thanks, 
without  expense ;  lazy,  though  you  be,  you  can 
do  it  without  labor."  * 

The  soul  of  man  has  been  placed  beyond  the 
reach  of  all  possible  harm.  We  shall  feel  our 
sorrows,  if  we  be  human ;  we  shall  bear  them,  if 
we  be  not  unmanly.  This  trumpery  body,  the 
prison  and  fetter  of  the  spirit,  may  be  tossed 
about;  "  upon  it  tortures,  robberies,  and  diseases 
may  work  their  will;  but  the  spirit  itself  is  holy 
and  eternal,  and  upon  it  no  one  can  lay  hands." 
All  that  is  best  for  man's  enjoyment — this  world, 
the  greatest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  produc- 
tions of  God,  and  the  mind  which  can  behold  and 
admire  it — are  our  own  property  and  will  not  de- 
sert us  as  long  as  we  ourselves  endure.  The  treas- 
ures of  this  world  which  we  so  carefully  guard 
and  are  ready  to  defend  at  the  risk  of  our  lives — 
treasures  for  which  our  fleets  dye  the  seas  with 
blood,  and  our  armies  shake  the  walls  of  cities ; 
for  which  we  so  often  violate  all  ties  of  relation- 


*  Seneca,  De  Beneficiis,  vi,  23;  ii,  30;  Minor  Dialogues,  i,  1, 
4;  vii,  15. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  lit.") 

ship  and  friendship — are  not  ours,  but  are  "  a 
kind  of  deposit,  which  is  on  the  point  of  passing 
into  other  hands."  Our  souls  are  our  own ;  they 
can  not  be  harmed.  We  may  keep  them  pure. 
What  care  we  for  meaner  things?  You  may  take 
riches  from  the  wise  man  ;  you  leave  him  all  that 
is  truly  his ;  he  is  happy  in  the  present,  he  does 
not  fear  for  the  future.  He  can  maintain  his  vir- 
tue. The  path  of  virtue  is  closed  to  none,  but 
open  to  all ;  it  invites  all,  freemen  or  slaves,  kings 
or  exiles ;  it  requires  no  qualifications  of  family 
or  property ;  "  it  is  satisfied  with  a  mere  man." 

"Even  though  you  be  hard  pressed,  and  vio- 
lently attacked  by  the  enemy,  still  it  is  base  to 
give  way ;  hold  the  post  assigned  to  you  by  na- 
ture. You  ask  what  this  post  is  ?  it  is  that  of 
being  a  man."  * 

"  Fortune  lashes  and  mangles  us.  Well,  let 
us  endure  it.  It  is  not  cruelty;  it  is  a  struggle, 
in  which  the  oftener  we  engage  the  braver  we 
shall  become."  f 

We  should  practice  humanity,  and  always 
keep  our  tempers  in  spite  of  losses,  wrongs, 
abuses,  and  sarcasms,  enduring  with  magnanimity 
our  short-lived  troubles.     While  we  worry,  death 


•Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  xi,S,  11;    xii,  17;  vii,  26;  iii,  18; 
ii,  19;  De  Benefidis,  vi,  3. 

t Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  i,  4. 


196  DEPARTED  GODS. 

comes  to  our  door.  If  we  abandon  our  minds  to 
anger  or  any  passion,  the  downward  tendency  of 
our  vices  will  carry  us  off  and  hurl  us  into  the 
lowest  depths.  We  should  reject  the  first  in- 
centives to  anger,  and  resist  its  very  begin- 
nings. It  is  hard  to  hold  anger  in  check  when 
it  has  once  begun,  because  then  reason  goes  for 
nothing.  Passion  will  do  as  much  as  it  chooses, 
not  merely  as  much  as  we  would  allow. 

Fabianus  says:  "We  ought  to  fight  against 
the  passions  by  main  force,  not  by  skirmishing, 
and  upset  their  line  of  battle  by  a  home  charge, 
not  by  inflicting  trifling  wounds.  I  do  not  ap- 
prove of  dallying  with  sophisms ;  they  must  be 
crushed,  not  merely  scratched."  * 

Life  is  not  a  good  thing,  but  to  live  well. 
Keep  a  good  conscience.  It  is  of  value  on  the 
rack  or  in  the  fire.  A  heart  filled  with  a  good 
conscience  will  rejoice  in  the  fire,  which  will 
only  make  it  shine  more  brightly  before  the 
world.  Men  should  free  themselves  from  all  hin- 
drances to  good  living.  Riches,  pleasures,  busi- 
ness should  be  counted  nothing  when  compared 
with  a  virtuous  life.  Men  have  abandoned  all, 
and  yet  have  not  learned  how  to  live,  still  less 
to  live  as  wise  men. 

Length   of  life   is   not  the  greatest   blessing. 

::  Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  v,  43 ;  iii,  7,  8 ;  x,  10. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  197 

The  delay  of  death  will  make  life  longer,  not 
pleasanter.  A  man  should  never  consider  the 
cost  of  being  virtuous.  She  never  allures  by 
gain  nor  deters  by  loss.  She  never  bribes  any 
one  by  hopes  and  promises.  "We  must  go  to 
her,  trampling  what  is  merely  useful  under  our 
feet.  Whithersoever  she  may  call  us  or  send  us 
we  must  go,  without  any  regard  for  our  private 
fortunes,  sometimes  without  sparing  even  our 
own  blood,  nor  must  we  ever  refuse  to  obey  any 
of  her  commands."* 

Pleasure  is  changeable  and  unreliable.  It 
dies  at  the  very  moment  when  it  charms  us 
most.  On  the  other  hand,  the  highest  good  is 
immortal.  It  knows  no  ending;  it  does  not 
admit  of  either  satiety  or  regret.  Whatever  we 
can  hold  in  our  hands  or  see  with  our  eyes  is 
transitory,  but  a  kindness  lasts  after  that  by 
means  of  which  it  is  bestowed  is  gone.  We 
may  make  worldly  goods  really  our  own  only 
by  giving  them  away.  We  should  give  in  the 
way  in  which  we  ourselves  would  like  to 
receive. f 

If  any  one  gave  you  a  few  acres  of  land,  or 
filled  your  chest  with  money,  or  presented  you 


•Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  iii,  33;  iv,  21;  x,  7 ;  De  Beruiii  iis, 
v,  17;  iv,  1. 

t  Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  vii,  7 ;  ii,  1 ;  De  Beneficiis,  i,  5. 


198  DEPARTED  OODS. 

with  a  house  bright  with  marble,  and  its  roof 
beautifully  painted  with  colors  and  gilding,  you 
would  call  these  benefits.  But  God  has  given 
you  the  boundless  extent  of  the  earth,  in  which 
he  has  buried  countless  mines,  and  on  which  he 
has  placed  countless  rivers  rolling  sands  of  gold. 
He  has  concealed  in  every  place  masses  of  silver 
and  all  kinds  of  metals,  and  has  enabled  you  to 
discover  the  hidden  treasures.  He  has  built  for 
you  a  great  mansion,  in  which  you  see  vast 
blocks  of  most  precious  stone,  the  paltriest  frag- 
ment of  which  you  admire,  and  he  has  covered 
it  with  a  roof  which  glitters  by  day  and  by  night ; 
and  yet  you  do  not  recognize  these  blessings  of 
God.* 

Present  time  is  short,  always  in  motion,  and 
runs  swiftly  away.  Man  can  not  grasp  it;  its 
unceasing  movements  brook  no  delay.  Duties 
should  be  done  now.  Postponement  is  the  great- 
est waste  of  life.  It  steals  our  time  day  after 
day.  It  takes  away  the  present  by  promising 
something  hereafter.  "There  is  no  such  obstacle 
to  true  living  as  waiting,  which  loses  to-day 
while  it  is  depending  on  the  morrow."  f 

Fate  decides  everything,  public  and  private. 
The  length  of  every  man's  life  is  decided  at  his 

*  Seneca,  De  Beneficiis,  iv,  5. 

t  Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  x,  9,  10. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  199 

birth.  It  has  long  since  been  settled  at  what 
we  should  rejoice  and  at  what  weep.  We  must 
patiently  endure  the  decisions  of  the  fates.  God 
gave  laws  to  the  fates,  yet  is  guided  by  them, 
and  always  obeys.  "  He  only  once  commanded." 
Our  philosopher,  however,  reconciles  all  this  with 
the  existence  and  exercise  of  free-will.  He  says : 
"Who  can  be  so  crazy  as  to  refuse  the  name  of 
free-will  to  that  which  has  no  danger  of  ceasing 
to  act,  and  of  adopting  the  opposite  course,  since, 
on  the  contrary,  he  whose  will  is  fixed  forever 
must  be  thought  to  wish  more  earnestly  than  any 
one  else.  Surely,  if  he  who  may  at  any  moment 
change  his  mind  can  be  said  to  wish,  we  must 
not  deny  the  existence  of  will  in  a  being  whose 
nature  admits  of  change  of  mind."* 

Seneca  generally  takes  a  bright  view  of  the 
future,  and  counsels  against  mourning  for  the 
dead.  The  soul  is  let  out  of  prison  and  is  free. 
The  dead  have  reached  deep  and  everlasting 
peace — beyond  the  fear  of  want,  beyond  anxiety 
and  envy.  Their  chaste  ears  are  not  wounded 
by  ribaldry ;  they  are  menaced  by  no  disaster. 
They  are  complete,  having  left  no  part  of  them- 
selves behind.  They  may  have  tarried  for  a 
brief  space  above  us,  in  order  to  be  cleansed  and 
purified  from  the  vices  and  rust  which  all  mortal 

*  Seneca,  .Minor  Dialogues,  i,  5 ;  De  Bcneficiies,  vi,  21. 


200  DEPARTED  GODS. 

lives  must  contract;  but  from  thence  they  rise 
to  the  high  heavens  and  join  the  souls  of  the 
blest,  welcomed  by  a  saintly  company.  "  Free 
to  roam  through  the  open,  boundless  realms  of 
the  everlasting  universe,  they  are  not  hindered 
in  their  course  by  intervening  seas,  lofty  mount- 
ains, impassable  valleys,  or  the  treacherous  flats 
of  the  Syrtes.  They  find  a  level  path  every- 
where, are  swift  and  ready  of  motion,  and  are 
permeated,  in  their  turn,  by  the  stars,  and  dwell 
together  with  them."* 

In  the  writings  of  Seneca  may  be  found  nu- 
merous and  striking  resemblances  to  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  We  can  not  find,  however,  that 
either  borrowed  from  the  other.  There  is  not 
the  slightest  possibility  that  Seneca  ever  had 
any  intercourse  with  Paul.  Several  authors 
have  made  large  collections  of  passages  which 
show  that  Seneca,  as  far  as  his  moral  doctrines 
and  precepts  are  concerned,  was  not  far  from  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.  Farrar  has  presented  some 
of  the  most  striking  of  these  passages,  from 
which  we  select  a  few  examples.-)* 

"  Do  you  wonder  that  man  goes  to  the  gods  ? 
God  comes  to  men;  nay,  what  is  yet  nearer,  he 


*  Seneca,  Minor  Dialogues,  xii,  9 ;  vi,  19,  25. 
t  Farrar,  Seekers  after  God,  pp.  174-180. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  201 

comes  into  men.  No  good  mind  is  holy  without 
God." 

"What  advantage  is  it  that  anything  is  hid- 
den from  men?  Nothing  is  closed  to  God;  he 
is  present  to  our  minds,  and  enters  into  our  cen- 
tral thoughts." 

"Words  must  be  sown  like  seed;  which, 
although  it  be  small,  when  it  hath  found  a  suit- 
able ground,  unfolds  its  strength,  and  from  very 
small  size  is  expanded  into  the  largest  increase." 

"We  shall  be  wise  if  we  desire  but  little;  if 
each  man  bikes  count  of  himself,  and  at  the 
same  time  measures  his  own  body,  he  will  know 
how  little  it  can  contain,  and  for  how  short  a 
time." 

"You  must  live  for  one  another,  if  you  wish 
to  live  for  yourself." 

"Do  we  teach  that  he  should  stretch  his 
hand  to  the  shipwrecked,  show  his  path  to  the 
wanderer,  divide  his  bread  with  the  hungry  ?  .  .  . 
When  I  could  briefly  deliver  to  him  the  formula 
of  human  duty ;  all  this  that  you  see,  in  which 
things  divine  and  human  are  included,  is  one — 
we  are  members  of  one  great  body."  * 

When  we  consider  the  age  in   which  Seneca 


•Seneca,  Letters  73,  83,  38,  114,  48,  95;  cf.  1  Cor.  iii,  16; 
Heb.  iv,  13;  Matt,  xiii,  8;  1  Tim.  vi,  8;  Lev.  xix,  18;  1  Cor. 
xii,  27;  Rom.  xii,  5. 


202  DEPARTED  GODS. 

lived,  we  must  place  a  high  estimate  upon  the 
strength  and  purity  of  his  character.  We  would 
not  conceal  or  minify  his  faults,  but  we  would 
acknowledge  with  gratitude  his  virtues.  God 
certainly  endowed  him  with  a  large  share  of  di- 
vine illumination. 

Among  the  slaves  of  Epaphroditus,  the  sec- 
retary of  the  Emperor  Nero,  Seneca  must  have 
noticed  a  little  lame  Phrygian  lad,  Epictetus  by 
name,  who  was  destined  to  become  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Stoic  philosophers.  He  was 
born  about  the  fiftieth  year  of  the  Christian 
era.  We  have  little  information  concerning  his 
life  which  we  may  count  as  historic.  He  was 
doubtless  treated  with  great  cruelty,  yet,  for  the 
pleasure  of  his  master,  was  trained  in  the  Stoic 
philosophy  by  Caius  Musonius  Rufus.  The  de- 
cree of  Domitian,  which  banished  all  the  philos- 
ophers from  Italy,  sent  Epictetus  to  Nicopolis  in 
Epirus.  We  do  not  know  whether  he  ever  re- 
turned to  Rome.  He  is  said  to  have  died  at  a 
good  old  age,  surrounded  by  many  loving  dis- 
ciples. Epictetus  exemplified  his  philosophy  in 
his  life,  so  far  at  least  as  we  have  any  knowledge 
of  his  history. 

The  good  man,  the  perfect  man,  the  wise  man, 
the  Stoic  lived  in  harmony  with  nature;  hence 
it  was   important   to   study  and  understand  na- 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  203 

ture.  Virtue  consisted  in  cherishing  right  opin- 
ions. Some  things  are  not  within  human  con- 
trol— property,  health,  position,  and  in  fact 
everything  which  the  great  multitude  considers 
desirable.  The  wise  man  does  not  trouble  him- 
self about  these  things.  But  his  thoughts,  his 
opinions,  his  feelings,  are  within  his  control. 
Concerning  these  he  exercises  his  utmost  care. 

Epictetus  trusted,  with  implicit  confidence,  in 
the  providence  of  God.  God's  care  would  never 
fail  his  child.  The  chief  delight  of  a  man 
should  be  found  in  the  consciousness  that  he  is 
obeying  God ;  not  in  word  only,  but  in  deed  and 
in  truth,  performing  the  acts  of  a  wise  and  good 
man.  The  human  will  should  perfectly  harmo- 
nize with  the  will  of  God.  And  in  this  filial  yield- 
ing to  God,  there  is  no  compulsion.  Man  is  free 
to  act  from  original  choice. 

"  Dare  to  look  up  to  God,  and  say :  Deal  with 
me  for  the  future  as  thou  wilt;  I  am  of  the 
same  mind  as  thou  art;  I  am  thine.  I  refuse 
nothing  that  pleases  thee;  lead  me  where  thou 
wilt;  clothe  me  in  any  dress  thou  choosest.  Is 
it  thy  will  that  I  should  hold  the  office  of  a  mag- 
istrate, that  I  should  be  in  the  condition  of  a 
private  man,  stay  here  or  be  in  exile,  be  poor,  be 
rich? — I  will  make  thy  defense  to  men  in  behalf 
of  all  these  conditions." 


204  DEPARTED  GODS. 

"But  I  have  never  been  hindered  in  my  will, 
nor  compelled  when  I  did  not  will.  And  how  is 
this  possible?  I  have  placed  my  movements  to- 
wards action  in  obedience  to  God.  Is  it  his 
will  that  I  should  have  fever?  It  is  my  will 
also.  Is  it  his  will  that  I  should  move  towards 
anything?  It  is  my  will  also.  Is  it  his  will 
that  I  should  obtain  anything?  It  is  my  wish 
also.  Does  he  not  will?  I  do  not  wish.  Is  it 
his  will  that  I  die — is  it  his  will  that  I  be  put 
to  the  rack?  It  is  my  will,  then,  to  die — it  is 
my  will,  then,  to  be  put  to  the  rack.  Who,  then, 
is  still  able  to  hinder  me  contrary  to  my  own 
judgment,  or  to  compel  me?  No  more  than  he 
can  hinder  or  compel  Zeus."* 

Here  is  perfect  resignation  to  the  will  of  God  ; 
here  is  the  adoption  of  the  divine  will  as  his  own. 
It  is  not  possible  to  conceal  from  God  our  acts, 
or  even  our  intentions  and  thoughts.  Man  should 
learn  the  nature  of  the  gods;  then  he  should 
please  and  obey  them,  and  with  all  his  power  im- 
itate them,  and  do  and  say  everything  consist- 
ently with  this  fact.f 

Men  are  sprung  from  God  in  an  especial 
manner.  He  is  their  Maker,  their  Guardian,  and 
their  Father.  This  should  save  man  from  sor- 
rows   and    fears,  and    from    mean    and    ignoble 

*Epictetus,  ii,  16;  iv,  1.  tEpictettis,  ii,  14. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  205 

thoughts  about  himself.  He  has  also  placed  by 
every  man  a  guardian — a  dromon,  to  whom  he 
has  committed  his  care.  This  guardian  never 
sleeps;  this  guardian  is  never  deceived.  Man 
is  never  alone.  God  and  his  dtemon  are  with 
him,  and  they  need  no  light  to  enable  them  to 
see  what  he  is  doing.* 

No  evil  can  happen  to  the  man  who  carries 
God  within.  He  fears  no  robber,  no  earthquake. 
Everything  is  full  of  peace  and  tranquillity. 
Every  way,  every  city,  every  meeting,  every 
neighbor,  every  companion,  is  harmless.  When 
he  dies,  his  body  is  resolved  into  its  original  ele- 
ments ;  his  spirit  goes  to  God,  but  whether  to  be 
absorbed  into  the  divine  essence,  or  to  continue 
his  individual  and  personal  existence,  Epictetus 
does  not  say.f 

Epictetus  would  stand  by  his  principles,  even 
at  the  risk  of  his  life.  "  Priscus  Helvidius  also 
saw  this,  and  acted  conformably.  For  when 
Vespasian  sent  and  commanded  him  not  to  go 
into  the  Senate,  he  replied :  '  It  is  in  your  power 
not  to  allow  me  to  be  a  member  of  the  Senate; 
but  so  long  as  I  am,  I  must- go  in.'  'Well,  go 
in  then,'  says  the  emperor,  'but  say  nothing.' 
'Do  not  ask  my  opinion,  and  I  will  be  silent.' 
'But  I  must  ask  your   opinion.'     'And    I    must 

♦Epictetus,  i,  3,  9,  14;  ii,  8.  t  Epictetus,  iii,  13 

18 


206  DEPARTED  GODS. 

say  what  I  think  right.'  '  But  if  you  do,  I  shall 
put  you  to  death.'  'When,  then,  did  I  tell  you 
that  I  am  immortal?  You  will  do  your  part, 
and  I  will  do  mine;  it  is  your  part  to  kill;  it  is 
mine  to  die,  but  not  in  fear;  yours  to  banish 
me,  mine  to  depart  without  sorrow.'"* 

The  philosopher  found  his  supreme  happiness 
in  praising  God — not  as  a  nightingale,  not  as  a 
swan,  but  as  a  rational  creature.  He  says :  "  I 
ought  to  praise  God;  this  is  my  work.  I  do  it; 
nor  will  I  desert  this  post  so  long  as  I  am  al- 
lowed to  keep  it.  And  I  exhort  you  to  join  in 
this  same  song."f 

A  true  Stoic  was  most  difficult  to  find.  Epic- 
tetus  says  that  he  never  saw  one — a  man  who 
was  happy  in  sickness,  in  danger,  in  disgrace,  in 
exile,  dying ;  a  man  ready  to  think  as  God  does, 
ready  to  be  disappointed,  blaming  neither  God 
nor  man,  angry  at  no  one,  envying  no  one,  jeal- 
ous of  no  one ;  "  desirous  from  a  man  to  become 
a  god,  and  in  this  poor  mortal  body  thinking  of 
his  fellowship  with  Zeus."{ 

It  is  agreed  on  the  part  of  all  fair-minded 
men  that  Epictetus  was  one  of  the  choicest  spir- 
its of  antiquity.  If  in  Epictetus  we  behold  a 
man  sustained  and  exalted  in  soul  by  his  philos- 


Epictetus,  i,  2.        t  Epictetus  i,  16.        +  Epictetus  ii,  19. 


THE  MORA  JJTY  OF  STOICISM.  207 

ophy,  and  winning  for  himself  abiding  happiness 
and  an  immortality  of  fame  under  the  humilia- 
tions and  cruelties  of  slavery,  in  Marcus  Aure- 
lius  we  gaze  upon  an  equally  noble  spectacle — a 
man  almost  born  to  the  purple,  the  greatest  ruler 
of  his  time,  yet  humble,  gentle,  meek,  self-forget- 
ful, conscientious,  chastened,  and  virtuous.  His 
was  a  pure  and  lofty  soul;  in  him  were  serenity, 
sweetness,  docility,  and  a  tenderness  almost  wo- 
manly. Never  did  ancient  virtue  shine  with  a 
milder  and  softer  brilliancy,  never  was  there 
equal  moral  delicacy  with  that  displayed  in  his 
celebrated  "Meditations."  When  we  appreciate 
the  character  of  the  emperor,  when  we  consider 
the  age  in  which  he  lived,  we  shall  be  prepared  to 
judge  charitably  of  the  part  he  may  have  taken 
in  the  persecution  of  the  Christians. 

His  "  Meditations,"  written  as  a  private  diary, 
and  not  for  the  public  eye,  and  hence  revealing 
his  innermost  heart,  has  been  used  as  a  manual 
of  devotions  throughout  the  Christian  Church. 
He  lived  as  though  the  breath  of  eternity  were 
fanning  his  cheek.  He  often  spoke  of  the  tran- 
sitory character  of  all  worldly  things,  lie 
counted  the  whole  world  but  small  and  insignif- 
icant in  comparison  with  the  universe.  To  live 
in  harmony  with  nature,  to  trust  God  and  do 
his  will,  and  to  give  one's  self  actively  to  the  cause 


208  DEPARTED  GODS. 

of  humanity, — these  he  considered  the  highest  du- 
ties of  man.  He  built  but  one  temple  during 
his  whole  reign,  and  that  he  dedicated  to  benef- 
icence. 

So  familiar  are  his  life  and  works,  that  we 
will  satisfy  ourselves  in  writing  down  a  few  se- 
lections from  his  thoughts : 

"  Every  moment  think  steadily  as  a  Roman 
and  a  man,  to  do  what  thou  hast  in  hand  with 
perfect  and  simple  dignity,  and  feeling  of  affec- 
tion, and  freedom,  and  justice,  and  to  give  thy- 
self relief  from  all  other  thoughts.  And  thou 
wilt  give  thyself  relief  if  thou  dost  every  act 
of  thy  life  as  if  it  were  thy  last,  laying  aside 
all  carelessness  and  passionate  aversion  from  the 
commands  of  reason,  and  all  hypocrisy  and  self- 
love  and  discontent,  with  the  portion  which  has 
been  given  to  thee." 

"  Never  value  anything  as  profitable  to  thy- 
self which  shall  compel  thee  to  break  thy  prom- 
ise, to  lose  thy  self-respect,  to  hate  any  man,  to 
suspect,  to  curse,  to  act  the  hypocrite,  to  desire 
anything  which  needs  walls  and  curtains." 

"  Do  not  act  as  if  thou  wert  going  to  live 
ten  thousand  years.  Death  hangs  over  thee. 
While  thou  livest,  while  it  is  in  thy  power,  be 
good." 

u  What,  then,  is   that  about  which-  we  ought 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  209 

to  employ  our  serious  pains  ?  This  one  thing : 
thoughts  just,  and  acts  social,  and  words  which 
never  lie,  and  a  disposition  which  gladly  accepts 
all  that  happens  as  necessary,  as  usual,  as  flow- 
ing from  a  principle  and  source  of  the  same 
kind." 

"Constantly  regard  the  universe  as  one  living 
being,  having  one  substance  and  one  soul." 

"  But,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  man's  duty  to 
comfort  himself,  and  to  wait  for  the  natural  dis- 
solution, and  not  to  be  vexed  at  the  delay,  but 
to  rest  in  these  principles  only :  the  one  that 
nothing  will  happen  to  me  which  is  not  conform- 
able to  the  nature  of  the  universe,  and  the  other 
that  it  is  in  my  power  never  to  act  contrary  to 
my  God  and  daemon;  for  there  is  no  man  who 
will  compel  me  to  this." 

"  Such  as  are  thy  habitual  thoughts,  such 
also  will  be  the  character  of  thy  mind  ;  for  the 
soul  is  dyed  by  the  thoughts.  Dye  it,  then, 
with  a  continuous  series  of  such  thoughts  as 
these  :  for  instance,  that  where  a  man  can  live, 
there  he  can  live  well." 

"  Whatever  any  one  does  or  says,  I  must  be 
good,  just  as  if  the  gold,  or  the  emerald,  or  the 
purple  were  always  saying  this :  Whatever  any 
one  does  or  says,  I  must  be  emerald  and  keep 
my  color." 


210  DEPARTED  GODS. 

"  It  is  peculiar  to  man  to  love  even  those 
who  do  wrong.  And  this  happens,  if  when  they 
do  wrong  it  occurs  to  thee  that  they  are  kins- 
men, and  that  they  do  wrong  through  ignorance 
and  unintentionally,  and  that  soon  both  of  you 
will  die;  and,  above  all,  that  the  wrong-doer  has 
done  thee  no  harm,  for  he  has  not  made  thy 
ruling  faculty  worse  than  it  was  before." 

"Whatever  may  happen  to  thee,  it  was  pre- 
pared for  thee  from  all  eternity." 

'*  No  longer  talk  at  all  about  the  kind  of  man 
that  a  good  man  ought  to  be,  but  be  such." 

"  Neither  in  writing  nor  in  reading  wilt  thou 
be  able  to  lay  down  rules  for  others  before  thou 
shalt  have  first  learned  to  obey  rules  thyself. 
Much  more  is  this  so  in  life." 

"  Thus,  then,  with  respect  to  the  gods  :  from 
what  I  constantly  experience  of  their  power, 
from  this  I  comprehend  that  they  exist,  and  I 
venerate  them."* 

These  three  greatest  of  Stoics  should  have 
made  the  age  in  which  they  lived  illustrious. 
But  their  teachings  were  powerless.  They  spoke 
for  philosophers,  not  for  the  great,  seething  mass 
of  humanity.  They  taught  an  imperfect  morality, 
as  they  themselves  were  painfully  and  sadly  con- 

*  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  Meditations,  ii,  5 ;  iii,  7 ;  iv, 
17,  33,  40 ;  v,  10,  16 ;  vii,  15,  22 ;  x,  5,  16 ;  xi,  29 ;  xii,  28. 


THE  MORALITY  OF  STOICISM.  211 

scious.  It  was  partial,  inadequate  to  rouse  the 
people  from  their  sluggish  indifference,  powerless 
to  stir  the  consciences  of  the  wicked,  and  content 
to  present  a  rule  supported  by  no  underlying 
principle.  It  was  without  authority,  without 
commanding  and  awakening  power,  without  di- 
vine sanctions,  without  inspiring  motives,  with- 
out holy  comforts,  and  without  well-grounded 
hopes  which  reached  out  into  the  future.  It 
sounded  its  appeals,  but  not  with  powerful  ardor. 
It  could  present  no  faultless  example. 

The  ideal  Stoic  is  an  impossibility.  Epicte- 
tus  declared  that  he  had  never  seen  one.  That 
sublime  imperturbability,  without  desires,  without 
passion,  without  pity,  loftily  smiling  at  all  hopes 
and  fears,  despising  sorrow  and  mourning,  with 
no  tears  to  shed,  proud  and  haughty,  selfishly 
unselfish,  almost  angry  at  the  very  thought  of 
anger,  with  affected  insensibility,  with  imaginary 
wisdom — it  is  not  Christian,  it  is  not  manly ;  a 
perfect  Stoic  would  be  sterile,  useless,  inhuman. 
This  is  not  like  the  Christian,  who  rejoices  with 
them  that  do  rejoice,  and  weeps  with  them  that 
do  weep. 

The  Stoic  believed  in  God — and  also  in  gods, 
planetary,  stellar,  and  other.  His  God  was  pan- 
theistic rather  than  spiritual,  and  consciously  per- 
sonal and  free.     Sometimes   he   seems  to  have 


212  DEPARTED  GODS. 

been  the  soul  of  the  universe.  The  Stoic  believed 
in  immortality — Seneca  seems  to  have  looked 
forward  to  a  personal  existence  after  death.  Ep- 
ictetus  avoids  questions  concerning  a  future  exist- 
ence ;  Marcus  Aurelius  looks  for  the  dissolution 
of  the  body  into  its  elements,  and  the  return  of 
the  immaterial  part  to  its  original  condition.  But 
this  is  a  barren,  cold,  and  comfortless  immor- 
tality. 

Stoicism  found  no  place  for  repentance  and 
divine  forgiveness.  There  is  no  place  for  the  in- 
dwelling spirit.  Indeed  there  is  frequent  men- 
tion of  God  with  man  or  within  man;  but  God  is 
of  such  a  nature  and  character  that  there  is  but 
indifferent  resemblance  to  the  Christian  doctrine. 
Sometimes  it  would  appear  that  man  is  a  part  of 
God  or  equal  with  God ;  nay,  is  even  exalted,  in 
some  respects,  above  God. 

In  every  respect,  except  as  to  certain  moral 
precepts,  Stoicism  and  Christianity  are  separated, 
each  from  the  other,  by  an  infinite  distance. 


IV. 


213 


19 


I. 

THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS  AND  THE  CULTURE 
HERO. 

THE  study  of  any  religion,  even  the  lowest, 
the  most  superstitious,  and  the  most  bar- 
barous, should  be  approached  with  the  most  pro- 
found reverence.  No  religious  rites  can  be  so 
frivolous  and  savage,  and  no  religious  beliefs  can 
be  so  poor  and  beggarly,  as  not  to  be  placed  in- 
finitely above  ridicule  or  contempt.  The  soil  upon 
which  the  altar  of  worship  has  been  erected  is 
holy,  and  we  should  tread  carefully  as  we  visit 
the  sacred  place.  Here  souls  cry  out  after  God ; 
they  feel  after  him  if  haply  they  may  find  him. 
They  may  grope  in  the  darkness;  but  to  an  hon- 
est soul  the  darkness  is  not  total.  There  are  some 
few  rays  of  true  light.  We  shall  appreciate  the 
religion  of  Christ  the  more,  the  more  thoroughly 
we  are  acquainted  with  other  religions.  We  shall 
feel  more  sympathy  with  the  heathen,  the  more 
carefully  we  study  their  thoughts,  and  mark  their 
honest  searchings  for  the  divine. 

Great  mystery  is  connected  with  the  religion 
of  ancient  Britain  and  Gaul.  The  deep,  dark 
forest,  the  sacred  oak  and  mistletoe,  the  circular 
and  sky-roofed  temple,  the  learned  and  influential 

215 


216  DEPARTED  GODS 

priesthood,  the  sacred  rites  and  symbolism,  have 
excited  a  curiosity  and  an  interest  thus  far  but 
poorly  gratified.  The  influence  of  Druidism  is 
still  felt  on  both  continents,  in  popular  tales,  tra- 
ditions and  superstitions. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  religious  system  of  the 
Druids,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  gather  any  in- 
formation upon  the  subject  at  all,  must  be  derived 
from  ancient  Celtic  mythologies,  venerable  tradi- 
tions, primeval  institutions,  early  superstitions  and 
their  survivals  in  modern  times,  archaeological 
monuments,  and  the  testimony  of  classic  writers. 
We  shall  investigate  each  of  these  sources  of  in- 
formation, and  gather  what  seems  to  us  most  val- 
uable, We  may  hope  to  be  able  to  let  in  some 
light  to  relieve  the  darkness  which,  after  centu- 
ries of  study,  still  surrounds  the  subject. 

We  shall  not  attempt  a  chronological  order  in 
our  studies.  After  we  have  tasted  the  flavor  of 
Celtic  mythology  we  may  read  with  clearer  vis- 
ion the  classic  and  archaeological  evidence.  There 
is  but  little  material  to  assist  us  in  our  study  of 
early  Celtic  mythology,  but  in  its  later  stages  we 
are  rather  distracted  by  its  abundance  than  dis- 
couraged by  its  failure.  And  then,  too,  this  great 
mass  of  material  has  not  been  digested ;  but  few 
scholars  having  studied  it  with  that  thoroughness 
which  the  importance  of  the  subject  demands. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  217 

Omitting  many  lesser  mythologic  characters, 
we  shall  confine  our  attention  largely  to  those 
of  the  first  rank,  and  select  such  myths  and 
legends  as  present  them  in  the  clearest  light. 
Perhaps  the  most  fruitful  field  of  all  is  Ireland, 
and  its  literature  also  may  be  as  ancient.  We 
therefore  give  this  island  the  leading  place  in  our 
researches.  We  may  here  avail  ourselves  of  the 
labors  of  several  distinguished  Celtic  scholars, 
who,  with  great  enthusiasm  and  learning,  have 
done  much  to  elucidate  a  difficult  subject. 

There  are  many  fabulous  legends  concerning 
the  settlement  of  Ireland.  Among  the  legends, 
we  find  the  mention  of  four  successive  colonies. 
These  are  the  Nemedians,  the  Firbolgs,  the 
Tuatha  De  Danann,  and  the  Milesians.  The  Ne- 
medians were  expelled  by  the  Fomorians,  a  band 
of  sea-rovers,  and  fled  from  the  island  in  three 
bodies.  Those  who  went  to  Britain  became 
Britons;  those  who  went  to  Thrace  returned  as 
Firbolgs;  and  those  who  went  to  the  north  of 
Europe  returned  as  the  Tuatha  De  Danann. 
The  Milesians  are  said  to  have  come  from 
the  north  of  Spain.  The  Tuatha  De  Danann, 
"  the  tribes  of  the  goddess  Danu,"  formed  the 
group  of  divinities  believed  in  by  the  ancient 
Goidel.  Nuada,  who  was  their  king,  lost  his 
right  arm  in  one  of  his  conflicts  with  the  savage 


218  DEPARTED  OODS. 

Firbolgs  and  their  hideous  allies.  This  blemish 
made  it  necessary  for  him  to  abdicate  his  throne. 
A  clever  man  of  his  court  made  him  a  silver 
hand,  and  another  man  still  more  clever,  endowed 
it  with  life  and  motion.  He  now,  after  the  space 
of  seven  years,  resumed  his  kingly  office,  and 
was  thereafter  known  as  "Nuada  of  the  Silver 
Hand."  He  was  a  most  warlike  king,  but  was 
represented  also  in  other  characters.  As  Nuada 
Finnfail  he  was  the  god  of  light  and  of  the  heav- 
ens; and  as  Nuada  Necht  he  was  connected  wTith 
the  world  of  waters.  We  may  compare  Nuada 
in  this  threefold  character  with  the  Greek  Zeus, 
but  it  must  be  the  primitive  Zeus.  We  call  to 
mind  the  fact  that  Zeus  also  lost  his  hands — 
both  of  them — and  we  shall  learn  the  story  of 
the  Norse  god  Tyr. 

In  Welsh  we  meet  with  "  Lluth  of  the  Silver 
Hand,"  who  is  doubtless  the  same  personage  as 
Nuth.  A  Welsh  name  of  London  is  Caer  Liith, 
"  Lud's  Fort;"  and  the  name  also  lingers  in  Ludgate 
Hill,  wThere  the  god  doubtless  had  an  early  shrine. 
In  the  territory  of  the  ancient  Silures  we 
meet  wTith  inscriptions  bearing  the  name  Nodeus. 
He  seems  to  have  been  a  kind  of  Neptune ;  and 
had  a  temple  at  Lydney,  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  Severn.  But  he  was  not  only  the  Neptune 
of  the  sea,  he  was  also  a  Mars. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  219 

"  A  small  plaque  of  bronze  found  on  the  spot 
gives  us  probably  a  representation  of  the  god 
himself.  The  principal  figure  thereon  is  a  youth- 
ful deity  crowned  with  rays  like  Phoebus ;  he 
-lands  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses,  like  the 
Roman  Neptune.  On  either  side  the  winds  are 
typified  by  a  winged  genius  floating  along,  and 
the  rest  of  the  space  is  left  to  two  Tritons;  while 
a  detached  piece,  probably  of  the  same  bronze, 
represents  another  Triton,  also  a  fisherman,  who 
has  just  succeeded  in  hooking  a  salmon."* 

There  are  other  Celtic  gods  which  combine  the 
characters  of  Mars  and  Jupiter.  Among  these  is 
Cormac  mac  Airt,  grandson  of  Conn  the  Hun- 
dred-fighter, who  is  regarded  to  have  reigned 
at  Tara  in  the  third  century.  He  exceeded  all 
others  in  munificence,  learning,  wisdom,  magnif- 
icence, and  military  glory.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  driven  from  his  throne  by  Fergus  the 
Black-toothed.  According  to  another  account,  his 
eye  was  put  out  by  iEngus  of  the  Poisoned  Spear, 
and  this  blemish  being  incompatible  with  king- 
ship, he  abdicated  the  throne  and  rendered  valu- 
able assistance  to  his  son  and  successor. 

We  must  also  place  here  Conaire  the  Great, 
who  met  with  a  most  tragic  death,  "  which  is 
brought  about  by  the  fairies  of  Erinn,  through 

•Rhys,  Ilihlx'H  I...  tuns,  1886,  p.  127. 


220  DEPARTED  OODS. 

the  instrumentality  of  outlaws,  coming  from  the 
sea  and  following  the  lead  of  a  sort  of  Cyclops 
called  Ingcel,  said  to  have  been  a  big,  rough, 
horrid  monster,  with  only  one  eye,  which  was, 
however,  wider  than  an  ox-hide,  blacker  than 
the  back  of  a  beetle,  and  provided  with  no  less 
than  three  pupils." 

Conchobar  mac  Nessa,  another  similar  char- 
acter, also  came  to  his  death  in  a  most  extraor- 
dinary manner.  A  ball  had  been  made  by  mix- 
ing the  brain  of  a  fallen  foe,  called  Mesgregra, 
with  lime.  Cet,  another  deadly  enemy,  secured 
possession  of  this  ball,  and  hurled  it  against 
Conchobar  with  so  accurate  an  aim  as  to  wound 
him  most  grievously  in  the  skull.  After  some 
years,  this  wound  caused  his  death. 

Nessa  is  described  as  a  warlike  virago,  with 
whom  Fergus  mac  Roig,  king  of  Ulster,  fell  in 
love,  but  was  rejected.  Now,  this  Fergus  was 
endowed  with  the  strength  of  seven  hundred 
men,  and  wielded  a  sword  which  extended,  when- 
ever he  used  it,  to  the  dimensions  of  a  rainbow. 
Nessa  had,  at  last,  consented  to  marriage  with 
Fergus,  but  only  on  the  condition  that  he  should 
give  up  the  kingdom  for  one  year  to  her  son 
Conchobar.  At  the  end  of  the  vear,  so  success- 
ful  had  been  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment  that  the  people   would   not  consent  to   a 


THE  '/////'  OF  THE  GODS.  221 

change.  Fergus  attempted  to  assert  his  claims 
by  force  of  arms,  but  was  not  successful,  and 
was  compelled  to  flee  from  the  kingdom. 

iEngus,  much  devoted  to  irresistible  music, 
was  the  son  of  Dagdu  the  Great,  who  is  described 
as  old  and  fond  of  porridge,  and,  withal,  a  good 
subject  for  comic  treatment,  and  the  goddess 
Boann,  from  whom  the  river  Boyne  takes  its 
name.  As  mac  Oc,  his  foster-father,  was  Mider, 
the  king  of  the  fairies,  whose  wife  was  Etain,  a 
dawn-goddess.  A  rival  separated  Mider  and 
Etain.  Mac  Oc  found  the  dawn-goddess,  clad 
in  purple,  housed  in  a  glass  sun-bower,  and  fed 
on  fragrance  and  the  bloom  of  odoriferous  flow- 
ers. Mac  6c  seized  the  bower,  and  carried  it 
with  him  whenever  he  traveled.  ./Engus,  by 
throwing  his  magic  mantle  around  her,  protected 
in  a  similar  manner  Grainne,  daughter  of  Cor- 
mac  mac  Airt,  who  declined  to  wed  Finn,  king 
of  the  fairies  and  of  the  dead,  and  eloped  with 
the  solar  hero  Diarmait. 

According  to  ancient  story,  the  Tuatha  De 
Danann  were  defeated  by  hostile  invaders  of 
their  realm,  and  then  withdrew  from  mortal  ken. 
They  retreated  into  the  hills  and  mounds  of 
Erinn,  and  there  formed  an  invisible  world  of 
their  own.  Hemce,  in  the  popular  belief,  the 
gods  are  especially  associated  with  the  mounds 


222  DEPARTED  GODS. 

and  cemeteries  of  the  country.  The  Brugh  of  the 
Boyne  was  the  home  of  Dagda  the  Great.  This 
home,  however,  he  lost  to  his  crafty  son  mac  Oc, 
who  was  thenceforth  known  as  the  iEngus  of 
the  Brugh.  Tradition  represents  himself  and 
sons  as  buried  there.  The  place  is  described  in 
an  old  account  as  most  admirable  :  "  There  are 
three  trees  there,  always  bearing  fruit.  There  is 
one  pig  there,  always  alive,  and  another  pig  al- 
ways ready  cooked;  and  there  is  a  vessel  there, 
always  full  of  excellent  ale."  This  is  the  ideal 
of  these  old  people  concerning  the  happiness  of 
those  who  dwell  in  the  land  of  the  blessed.  There 
are  many  myths  connected  with  iEngus,  some 
of  which  do  not  yield  to  explanation,  as  when  we 
are  told  that  his  four  kisses  were  converted  into 
"birds  which  haunted  the  youths  of  Erinn." 

Among  the  numerous  legends  furnished  by 
Irish  literature  we  select  one,  which  we  relate 
with  somewhat  of  detail: 

"  One  night  iEngus,  the  mac  Oc,  dreamed 
that  he  saw  at  his  bedside  a  maiden  the  most 
beautiful  in  Erinn.  He  made  a  move  to  take 
hold  of  her;  but  she  vanished,  he  knew  not 
whither.  He  remained  in  his  bed  till  the  morn- 
ing; but  he  was  in  an  evil  plight  on  account  of 
of  the  maiden  leaving  him  without  vouchsafing 
him  a  word,  and  he  tasted  no  food   that  day. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  223 

The  next  night  the  same  lovely  form  appeared 
again  at  his  bedside,  and  this  time  she  played  on 
the  sweetest  of  musical  instruments.  The  effect 
on  him  was  much  the  same  as  before,  and  he 
fasted  that  day  also.  This  went  on  for  a  whole 
year,  and  he  became  the  victim  of  love ;  but  he 
told  nobody  what  ailed  him.  The  physicians  of 
Erinn  were  called  in,  and  one  of  them  at  length 
guessed  by  his  face  what  he  was  suffering  from. 
He  bade  his  mother,  Boann,  be  sent  for  to  hear 
her  son's  confession.  She  came,  and  he  told  her 
his  story.  She  then  sent  for  the  Dagda,  his 
father,  to  whom  she  explained  that  their  son 
was  the  victim  of  a  wasting  sickness  arising  from 
unrequited  love,  which  was  considered  a  fatal 
disease  in  ancient  Erinn.  The  Dagda  was  in  bad 
humor,  and  declared  he  could  do  nothing,  which 
was  promptly  contradicted ;  for  he  was  told  that 
as  he  was  the  king  of  the  Side — that  is,  of  the 
gods  and  fairies  of  Erinn — he  might  send  word  to 
Bodb  the  Red,  king  of  the  fairies  of  Munster,  to 
use  his  great  knowledge  of  the  fairy  settlements 
of  Erinn  to  discover  the  maiden  that  haunted 
the  mac  Oc's  dreams.  iEngus  had  now  been  ill 
two  years,  and  Bodb  required  a  year  for  the 
search ;  but  he  proved  successful  before  the  year 
was  out.  So  he  came  with  the  news  to  the 
Dagda,  and  took  the  mac  Oc  to  see  if  he  could 


224  DEPARTED  GODS. 

recognize  the  lady.  The  mac  Oc  did  so  the 
moment  he  descried  her,  among  her  thrice  fifty 
maiden  companions.  These,  we  are  told,  were 
joined  two  and  two  together  by  silver  chains, 
and  their  mistress  towered  head  and  shoulders 
above  the  rest.  Her  name  was  Caerabar,  or, 
more  shortly,  Caer,  daughter  of  Etal  Anbuar,  of 
the  fairy  settlement  of  Naman,  in  the  land  of 
Connaught.  She  wore  a  silver  collar  around  her 
neck  and  a  chain  of  burnished  gold.  iEngus  was 
grieved  that  he  had  not  the  power  to  take  her 
away,  so  he  returned  home ;  and  the  Dagda  was 
advised  to  seek  the  aid  of  Ailili  and  Medb,  the 
king  and  queen  of  the  western  kingdom.  But 
Caer's  father  declining  to  answer  the  summons 
that  he  should  appear  before  them,  an  attack 
was  made  on  his  residence,  when  he  himself  was 
taken,  and  brought  before  Ailili  and  Medb.  He 
then  explained  to  them  that  he  had  no  power 
over  his  daughter,  who,  with  her  companions, 
changed  their  forms  every  other  year  into  those 
of  birds.  In  fact,  he  added  that  on  the  first  day 
of  the  ensuing  winter  they  would  appear  as  one 
hundred  and  fifty  swans  on  Loch  bel  draccon  oc- 
cruit  cliach,  or  the  Lake  of  the  Mouths  of  the 
Dragons,  near  CliaCh's  Crowd.  Peace  was  accord- 
ingly made  with  Etal,  and  iEngus  betook  him  to 
the   shore   of   the   lake   on   the    day   mentioned. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  225 

Recognizing  Caer  in  the  form  of  a  swan,  he  called 
to  her  and  said :  '  Come  to  speak  to  me,  Caer.' 
'Who  calls  me?'  was  the  reply.  '/Engus  calls 
thee,'  he  said.  '  I  will  come,'  said  she,  '  provided 
I  obtain  that  thou  wilt  on  thy  honor  make  for 
the  lake  after  me.'  'I  will,'  said  he.  She  ac- 
cordingly came  to  him,  whereupon  he  placed  his 
two  hands  on  her.  Then  they  flew  off  in  the 
form  of  a  pair  of  swans,  and  they  went  thrice 
round  the  lake.  They  afterward  took  their  flight 
to  the  Brugh  of  the  Boyne,  where  they  made 
such  enchanting  music  that  it  plunged  every- 
body in  a  deep  sleep,  which  lasted  three  days 
ami  three  nights.  Caer  remained  at  the  Brugh 
of  the  Boyne  as  the  mac  Oc's  consort."  * 

This  is  doubtless  the  original  of  the  Welsh 
saga  called  the  Dream  of  Maxen.  The  follow- 
ing is  an  abstract : 

"  Maxen  was  emperor  of  Rome,  and  the  hand- 
somest of  men,  as  well  as  the  wisest,  with  whom 
none  of  his  predecessors  might  compare.  One 
day  he  and  his  courtiers  went  forth  to  hunt,  and 
in  the  course  of  the  day  he  sat  himself  down  to 
rest,  while  his  chamberlains  protected  him  from 
the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun  with  their  shields. 
Beneath  that  shelter  he  slept,  and  he  dreamt 
that  he  was  traveling  over  hill  and  dale,  across 

*  Rhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1880,  pp.  169-171. 


226  DEPARTED  GODS. 

rich  lands  and  fine  countries,  until  at  length  he 
reached  a  sea-coast.  Then  he  crossed  the  sea 
in  a  magnificent  ship,  and  landed  in  a  great  city 
in  an  island,  which  he  traversed  from  the  one 
shore  till  he  was  in  sight  of  the  other;  there  we 
find  him  in  a  district  remarkable  for  its  precip- 
itous mountains  and  lofty  cliffs,  from  which  he 
could  descry  an  isle  in  front  of  him,  surrounded 
by  the  sea.  He  stayed  not  his  course  until  he 
reached  the  mouth  of  a  river,  where  he  found  a 
castle  with  open  gates.  He  walked  in,  and  there 
beheld  a  fair  hall,  built  of  stones  precious  and 
brilliant,  and  roofed  with  shingles  of  gold.  To 
pass  by  a  great  deal  more  gold  and  silver  and 
other  precious  things,  Maxen  found  in  the  hall 
four  persons;  namely,  two  youths,  playing  at 
chess.  They  were  the  sons  of  the  lord  of  the 
castle,  who  was  a  venerable,  gray-haired  man,  sit- 
ting in  an  ivory  chair  adorned  with  the  images 
of  two  eagles  of  ruddy  gold.  He  had  bracelets 
of  gold  on  his  arms,  and  many  a  ring  glittered 
on  his  fingers;  a  massive  gold  torque  adorned 
his  neck,  while  a  frontlet  of  the  same  precious 
metal  served  to  restrain  his  locks.  Hard  by  sat 
his  daughter,  in  a  chair  of  ruddy  gold,  and  her 
beauty  was  so  transcendent  that  it  would  be  no 
more  easy  to  look  at  her  face  than  to  gaze  on 
the  sun   when   his    rays    are    most   irresistible. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  OODS.  227 

She  was  clad  in  white  silk,  fastened  on  her 
breast  with  brooches  of  ruddy  gold,  and  over  it 
she  wore  a  surcoat  of  golden  satin,  while  her 
head  was  adorned  with  a  golden  frontlet  set  with 
rubies  and  gems,  alternating  with  pearls  and  im- 
perial stones.  The  narrator  closes  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  damsel  by  giving  her  a  girdle  of  gold, 
and  by  declaring  her  altogether  the  fairest  of  the 
race.  She  rose  to  meet  Maxen,  who  embraced 
her,  and  sat  with  her  in  her  chair.  At  this  point 
the  dream  was  suddenly  broken  off  by  the  rest- 
lessness of  the  horses  and  the  hounds  and  the 
creaking  of  the  shields  rubbing  against  each 
other,  which  woke  the  emperor  a  bewildered  man. 
Reluctantly  and  sadly  he  moved,  at  the  advice 
of  his  men,  towards  home;  for  he  could  think  of 
nothing  but  the  fair  maiden  in  gold.  In  fact 
there  was  no  joint  in  his  body,  or  even  as  much 
as  the  hollow  of  one  of  his  nails,  which  had  not 
become  charged  with  her  love.  When  his  court- 
iers sat  at  table  to  eat  or  drink,  he  would  not 
join  them,  and  when  they  went  to  hear  song  and 
entertainment,  he  would  not  go;  or,  in  a  word, 
do  anything  for  a  whole  week  but  sleep  as  often 
as  the  maiden  slept,  whom  he  beheld  in  his 
dreams.  When  he  was  awake  she  was  not  pres- 
ent to  him,  nor  had  he  any  idea  where  in  the 
world   she   was.     This   went   on  till  at  last  one 


228  DEPARTED  GODS. 

of  his  nobles  contrived  to  let  him  know  that  his 
conduct,  in  neglecting  his  men  and  his  duties, 
was  the  cause  of  growing  discontent.  There- 
upon he  summoned  before  him  the  wise  men  of 
Rome,  and  told  them  the  state  of  mind  in  which 
he  was.  Their  advice  was  that  messengers 
should  be  sent  on  a  three  years'  quest  to  the 
three  parts  of  the  world,  as  they  calculated  that 
the  expectation  of  good  news  would  help  to  sus- 
tain him.  But  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  the 
messengers  returned  unsuccessful,  which  made 
Maxen  sad ;  so  other  messengers  were  sent  forth 
to  search  another  third  of  the  world.  They  re- 
turned at  the  end  of  their  year,  like  the  others, 
unsuccessful.  Maxen,  now  in  despair,  took  the 
advice  of  one  of  his  courtiers,  and  resorted  to 
the  forest  where  he  had  first  dreamt  of  the 
maiden.  When  the  glade  was  reached,  he  was 
able  to  give  his  messengers  a  start  in  the  right 
direction.  They  went  on  and  on,  identifying  the 
country  they  traversed  with  the  emperor's  de- 
scription of  his  march  day  by  day,  until  at  last 
they  reached  the  rugged  district  of  Snowdon, 
and  beheld  Mona  lying  in  front  of  them  flat  in 
the  sea.  They  proceeded  a  little  further,  and 
entered  a  castle  where  Caernarvon  now  stands, 
and  there  beheld  the  hall  roofed  with  gold;  they 
walked  in,  and  found  Kynan  and  Adeon  playing 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  229 

at  chess,  while  their  father,  Eudav,  son  of  Kara-, 
dawg,  sat  in  his  chair  of  ivory,  with  his  daugh- 
ter Elen  seated  near  him.  They  saluted  her  as 
empress  of  Rome,  and  proceeded  to  explain  the 
meaning  of  an  act  she  deemed  so  strnnge.  She 
listened  courteously,  but  declined  to  go  with 
them,  thinking  it  more  appropriate  that  the  em- 
peror should  come  in  person  to  fetch  her.  In  due 
time  he  reached  Britain,  which  he  conquered  from 
Beli  the  Great  and  his  sons;  then  he  proceeded 
to  visit  Elen  and  her  father,  and  it  was  during 
his  stay  here,  after  the  marriage,  that  Elen  had 
Caermarthen  built,  and  the  stronghold  in  Eryri. 
The  story  adds  Caerleon  to  them,  but  distin- 
guishes the  unnamed  Snowdon  city  as  the  favor- 
ite abode  of  her  and  her  husband.  The  next 
she  undertook  was  to  employ  the  hosts  at  her 
command  in  the  construction  of  roads  between 
the  three  towns  which  she  had  caused  to  be  built 
in  part  payment  of  her  maiden-fee.  But  Maxen 
remained  here  so  many  years  that  the  Romans 
made  an  emperor  in  his  stead.  So  at  length  he 
and  Elen,  and  her  two  brothers  and  their  hosts, 
set  out  for  Rome,  which  they  had  to  besiege  and 
take  by  storm.  Maxen  was  now  reinstated  in 
power,  and  he  allowed  his  brothers-in-law  and 
their  hosts   to   settle    wherever  they  chose;  so 

Adeon  and  his  men  came  back  to  Britain,  while 

20 


230  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Kynan  and  his  reduced  Brittany,  and  settled 
there."* 

The  original  of  Maxen  was  probably  Merlin 
Emrys,  who  seems  to  have  conquered  the  country 
from  the  Chthonian  god,  Beli  the  Great.  Elen 
is  evidently  the  dawn-goddess.  Caer,  with  her 
one  hundred  and  fifty  companions  with  their 
silver  chains,  may  explain  the  name  of  the  god- 
dess in  the  other  story — Elen  Luyddawg,  "Elen 
of  the  Host."  The  attendants  may  be  an  exag- 
geration of  the  number  of  priestesses  who  were 
supposed  to  have  presided  at  her  altars.  The 
virgin  priestesses  of  the  Isle  of  Sein,  according  to 
Pomponius  Mela,  could  take  any  form  they  chose. 
Sometimes  they  are  merely  birds,  and  sometimes 
they  are  designated  as  swans.  The  Welsh,  in 
corresponding  superstitions,  prefer  the  goose,  and 
treat  those  who  assume  this  form  as  witches. 
"It  was  an  evil  omen  to  see  geese  on  a  lake  at 
night,"  especially  if  this  were  the  first  Thursday 
night  of  the  lunar  month.f 

There  is  a  story  that  Zeus  spent  a  part  of  his 
childhood  on  the  summit  of  one  of  the  Lyciean 
mountains  in  Arcadia,  and  that  there,  once  upon 
a  time,  one  of  the  kings  sacrificed  his  child  upon 
his  altar.     On  the  same  mountain   was  a  sacred 


•Rhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  1G2-165. 
tRhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  168-175. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  231 

spring,  and  when  the  water  of  this  holy  well  was 
touched  by  a  priest  with  a  branch  of  an  oak,  a 
refreshing  shower  was  sure  to  bless  the  thirsty 
land.  The  Fountain  of  Baranton  in  the  forest  of 
Brecilien  is  equally  famous.  When  the  people  of 
the  country  wanted  rain,  they  would  go  to  this 
fountain  and  pour  the  contents  of  a  tankard  filled 
with  its  waters  upon  a  slab  near  at  hand,  and 
their  wish  would  be  gratified.  At  the  present 
day,  in  seasons  of  drought,  the  people  of  the  sur- 
rounding parishes  go  to  this  well  in  procession, 
their  priests  ringing  bells  and  chanting  hymns ; 
upon  arrival  at  the  sacred  spot,  the  priest  of  the 
canton  dips  the  foot  of  the  cross  in  the  water, 
and  rain  is  sure  to  follow  within  a  week. 

There  lies  in  Snowdon  Mountain  a  lake  called 
Dulyn,  in  a  dismal  dingle  surrounded  by  high 
and  dangerous  rocks  ;  the  lake  is  exceedingly 
black,  and  its  fish  are  loathsome,  having  large 
heads  and  small  bodies.  No  wild  swan,  or  duck, 
or  any  kind  of  bird  has  ever  been  seen  to  light 
on  it,  as  is  their  wont  on  every  other  Snowdon- 
ian  lake.  In  this  same  lake  there  is  a  row  of 
stepping-stones,  extending  into  it;  and  if  any  one 
steps  on  the  stones,  and  throws  water  so  as  to 
wet  the  furthest  stone  of  the  series,  which  is 
called  the  Red  Altar,  it  is  but  a  chance  that  you 
do  not  get  rain  before  night,  even  in  hot  weather. 


232  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Diarmait  and  Finn  mac  Cumaill  were  search- 
ing for  some  of  the  men  of  the  latter,  whom  a 
wizard  chief  had  carried  away.  They  sailed  far 
toward  the  west  till  they  came  to  a  steep  cliff, 
which  seemed  to  reach  to  the  clouds.  With  in- 
credible difficulty  and  danger,  Diarmait  alone  sur- 
mounted the  cliff,  and  saw  spread  before  him  a 
beautiful  plain,  bordered  with  pleasant  hills, 
shaded  by  leafy  groves,  and  sweet  with  lovely 
flowers.  Birds  warbled  among  the  trees,  bees 
were  busy  among  the  flowers,  winds  whispered 
through  the  foliage,  and  streams  purled  and  gur- 
gled as  they  pursued  their  course  through  green 
fields.  Walking  out  into  the  plain,  he  saw  straight 
before  him  a  tree  overtopping  all  the  others,  laden 
with  much  fruit.  Near  the  tree  stood  a  pillar- 
stone,  which  was  surrounded  at  a  little  distance 
by  a  circle  of  other  pillar-stones.  Near  the  cen- 
tral stone  was  a  spring,  where  water  clear  as 
crystal  flowed  away  towards  the  middle  of  the 
plain.  He  stooped  to  drink;  but  before  his  lips 
touched  the  water  he  was  startled  by  the  noise 
of  the  heavy  tramp  of  soldiers  and  the  clank  of 
their  arms.  He  sprang  to  his  feet,  and  looked 
around,  but  saw  nothing.  A  second  time  he 
stooped  to  drink,  with  the  same  result.  While  he 
stood  wondering,  he  saw  on  the  top  of  the  pillar- 
stone  a  most  beautiful  drinking-horn  chased  with 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  233 

gold  and  enameled  with  precious  stones.  He 
took  the  horn,  filled  it  with  water,  and 
slaked  his  thirst.  Scarcely  had  he  taken  it  from 
his  lips  when  he  saw  a  gruagach  coming  from  the 
east  with  great  strides  and  full  of  wrath.  He  was 
clad  in  mail  complete,  armed  with  shield  and 
helmet,  and  sword  and  spear,  and  wore  a  beau- 
tiful scarlet  mantle  hung  over  his  armor  and  fast- 
ened at  his  throat  with  a  golden  brooch,  while  a 
circlet  of  ruddy  gold  confined  his  yellow  hair. 
The  gruagach  said,  with  angry  voice,  that  he 
thought  the  green  plains  of  Erinn,  with  the  sweet 
water  of  their  crystal  springs,  ought  to  have  sat- 
isfied Diarmait,  so  that  he  need  not  have  invaded 
his  island,  and  drunk  from  his  well  in  his  drinking- 
horn  without  permission ;  and  he  furthermore  de- 
clared that  he  should  never  leave  the  spot  till  he 
had  paid  full  satisfaction  for  the  insult.  They 
fought  all  day,  and  at  its  close  the  gruagach 
leaped  into  the  well  and  disappeared  from  sight. 
Diarmait  now  went  toward  the  end  of  the  great 
forest,  and  killed  one  of  a  herd  of  speckled  deer, 
a  portion  of  the  flesh  of  which,  together  with 
water  from  the  fountain,  formed  his  supper.  He 
slept  soundly,  and  prepared  a  similar  breakfast. 
But  the  gruagach  awaited  him  at  the  well,  still 
more  angered  at  him  for  a  double  insult — he  had 
also  killed  one  of  his  deer.    They  fought  the  sec- 


234  DEPARTED  GODS. 

ond  day,  and  at  its  close  the  gruagach  again 
leaped  into  the  spring  and  disappeared.  On  the 
third  day  they  met  with  the  same  history.  But 
at  the  end  of  the  fourth  day  Diarmait  threw  his 
arms  around  his  antagonist,  and  they  both  dis- 
appeared in  the  well  together.  They  reached  the 
"  Land  Beneath  the  Billow,"  where  the  gruagach 
disengaged  himself  and  escaped,  and  Diarmait 
was  left  alone.  Here  he  met  with  the  brother 
of  his  strange  antagonist,  who  had  been  disin- 
terested. Forming  an  alliance  with  this  brother, 
he  made  war  on  the  gruagach,  or  Knight  of  the 
Fountain,  who  was  ultimately  defeated  and 
slain.  * 

The  stones  which  fill  a  prominent  place  in 
some  of  these  legendary  tales  may  have  originally 
represented  the  deities  especially  honored.  We 
may  recall  the  account  which  relates  that  Merlin 
advised  those  who  consulted  him  as  to  the  matter 
of  building  Stonehenge  to  bring  the  pillar-stones, 
called  the  "  Choir  of  the  Giants,"  from  the  place 
where  they  stood  at  Killarans  Mons,  in  Ireland, 
and  set  them  up  in  the  same  order.  They  were 
considered  to  have  been  possessed  of  various  vir- 
tues, especially  of  the  virtue  of  healing.  The 
giants  of  old  had  cured  grievous  maladies  by 
washing  their  patients  with  the  water  with  which 

*  Kkys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  187-190. 


236  DEPARTED  GODS. 

these  stones  had  first  been  bathed ;  or,  again,  they 
made  application  of  certain  medicinal  herbs  which 
had  first  been  dipped  in  the  same  holy  bath. 
Thus,  according  to  ancient  story,  Stonehenge  came 
into  existence.  The  site  of  this  circle  of  sacred 
stones  in  Ireland  was  perhaps  at  Usnech,  in  the 
county  of  Westmeath.  St.  Patrick  cursed  the 
sacred  stones  of  Usnech  on  account  of  the 
heathen  worship  which  was  performed  in  the  holy 
place.  It  is  related  in  like  manner -that  St.  David 
split  the  capstone  of  the  Mien  Ketti  cromlech  in 
Gower,  to  prove  to  the  people  that  it  was  not 
divine. 

The  hero  of  these  various  tales  can  be  no  other 
than  the  Celtic  Zeus.  In  his  early  history  he 
was  the  god  of  light  and  of  the  sun.  In  his 
later  stages  of  development,  by  expansion  of  his 
nature  and  multiplication  of  his  attributes,  he 
became  the  god  of  the  sky  and  of  heaven,  the 
god  of  thunder  and  of  rain,  and  the  god  of  the  sea 
and  of  all  waters.  Hence,  holy  wells  with  their 
worship  were,  in  many  cases  at  least,  originally 
connected  with  this  Celtic  Zeus.  And,  the  god  of 
the  light  and  of  the  sun — and  generally  of  all  the 
bright  powers  of  nature — he  fought  against  the 
demons  of  darkness.  He  was  enamored  of  the 
goddesses  of  the  dawn,  the  morning  dew,  the 
spring-time,  and  the  flowers.     He  frequently  res- 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  OODS.  287 

cued  them  from  imprisonment,  enchantment,  and 
tyrannical  rule.  As  the  god  of  fountains  and  all 
waters,  he  marshaled  the  clouds  swollen  with 
fertilizing  rains,  and  bade  them  drop  their  treas- 
ures upon  the  earth,  defeated  the  giants  who  pos- 
sessed the  fountains,  and  controlled  for  the  good 
of  mortals  the  refreshing  streams  and  summer 
showers.  In  an  ethical  sense  the  Celtic  Zeus 
fights  against  moral  darkness  and  the  giants  of 
evil,  and  is  the  source  of  all  spiritual  light  and 
blessings. 

At  midsummer,  May  first,  the  Druids  are  said 
to  have  caused  all  fires  to  be  extinguished,  and 
then  rekindled  from  the  sacred  fire,  which  they 
never  permitted  to  go  out.  These  fires  were 
kept  burning  by  Christian  priests  long  after  the 
old  religion  had  passed  away.  In  1220,  Loun- 
dres,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  extinguished  the  sa- 
cred fire  kept  near  the  church  of  Kildare,  but  it 
was  afterward  rekindled,  and  continued  to  burn 
till  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries.  The  sa- 
cred fire  was  presided  over  by  St.  Brigit,  and  at- 
tended by  virgins.  The  Beltane  was  kindled  on 
Midsummer-eve,  All-hallow-e'en,  and  Christmas. 
Conspicuous  places  made  it  visible  to  multitudes 
of  eyes.  In  the  north  of  England  on  Midsum- 
mer-eve, bonfires  were  lighted  by  corporate  au- 
thority in   all  market-places.     At   Callander,  in 

21 


238  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Perthshire,  the  ashes  left  from  the  burning  of 
the  Beltane  were  collected,  and  a  circle  formed 
therewith,  near  the  circumference  of  which  a  stone 
was  placed  for  every  person  who  took  part  in  the 
bonfire.  If  a  stone  were  removed  from  its  place 
before  morning,  it  was  believed  that  the  person 
whom  it  represented  would  die  within  one  year.* 
In  some  parts  of  Scotland,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century,  the  festival  is  de- 
scribed as  follows :  "  The  young  people  of  a  ham- 
let meet  in  the  moors  on  the  first  of  May.  They 
cut  a  table  in  the  green  sod,  of  a  round  figure, 
by  cutting  a  trench  in  the  ground  of  such  cir- 
cumference as  to  hold  the  whole  company.  They 
then  kindle  a  fire,  and  dress  a  repast  of  eggs  and 
milk  in  the  consistence  of  a  custard.  They 
knead  a  cake  of  oatmeal,  which  is  toasted  at 
the  embers  against  a  stone.  After  the  custard 
is  eaten  up,  they  divide  the  cake  in  so  many 
portions,  as  similar  as  possible  to  one  another, 
in  size  and  shape,  as  there  are  persons  in  the 
company.  They  daub  one  of  these  portions  with 
charcoal  until  it  is  perfectly  black.  They  then 
put  all  the  bits  of  the  cake  into  a  bonnet,  and 
every  one,  blindfold,  draws  out  a  portion.  The 
bonnet-holder  is  entitled  to  the  last  bit.     Who- 


*  Anthropological  Review,  188G,  Vol.  IV,  p,  346. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  239 

ever  draws  the  black  bit  is  the  devoted  person 
who  is  to  be  sacrificed  to  Beal,  whose  favor  they 
mean  to  implore  in  rendering  the  year  produc- 
tive. The  devoted  person  is  compelled  to  leap 
three  times  over  the  flames." 

In  England  similar  observances  have  been  de- 
scribed :  "  At  the  village  of  Holne,  situated  on 
one  of  the  spurs  of  Dartmoor,  is  a  field  of  about 
two  acres,  the  property  of  the  parish,  and  called 
the  ploy  (play)  field.  In  the  center  of  this 
stands  a  granite  pillar  (Menhir)  six  or  seven 
feet  high.  On  May  morning,  before  daybreak, 
the  young  men  of  the  village  assemble  there,  and 
then  proceed  to  the  moor,  where  they  select  a 
ram  lamb  (doubtless  with  the  consent  of  the 
owner),  and,  after  running  it  down,  bring  it  in 
triumph  to  the  ploy-field,  fasten  it  to  the  pillar, 
cut  its  throat,  and  then  roast  it  whole,  skin,  wool, 
etc.  At  midday  a  struggle  takes  place,  at  the 
risk  of  cut  hands,  for  a  slice,  it  being  supposed 
to  confer  luck  for  the  ensuing  year  on  the  for- 
tunate devourer.  As  an  act  of  gallantry,  in  high 
esteem  among  the  females,  the  young  men  some- 
times fight  their  way  through  the  crowd  to  get 
a  slice  for  their  chosen  among  the  young  women, 
all  of  whom,  in  their  best  dresses,  attend  the 
ram-feast,  as  it  is  called.  Dancing,  wrestling, 
and  other  games,  assisted  by  copicus  libations  of 


240  DEPARTED  GODS. 

cider  during  the  afternoon,  prolong  the  festivities 
till  midnight." 

As  late  as  1795  fires  were  lighted  at  midnight 
in  Ireland  in  honor  of  the  sun.  According  to 
Spencer,  the  Irish  are  accustomed  to  say  a  prayer 
whenever  they  light  a  fire.  On  days  sacred  to 
the  sun,  offerings  of  milk  were  presented  on  the 
gruagach-stone  found  in  every  village. 

In  Scotland  there  was  a  practice,  described 
by  an  eye-witnesss,  that  after  a  child  was  bap- 
tized, and  on  the  return  of  the  party  from  the 
church,  the  infant  was  swayed  three  times  gently 
over  a  flame;  or,  according  to  another  authority, 
the  child  was  handed  three  times  across  the  fire. 
In  Perthshire,  in  cases  of  private  baptism,  there 
was  a  custom  of  passing  the  child  three  times 
around  the  crook  which  was  suspended  over  the 
center  of  the  fire."* 

As  a  religious  duty,  the  Highlanders  walk 
round  their  fields  and  flocks  with  some  burning 
substance  in  their  right  hand.f  In  Cornwall  we 
find  the  same  custom,  and  the  torch  is  carried 
with  the  course  of  the  sun.  When  disease  in- 
vaded a  flock,  the  cattle  were  forced  to  pass 
through  a  fire,  and  sometimes  a  calf  was  burned 
as  an  offering.    There  are  holy  wells  in  Cornwall, 


*  Anthropological  Review,  1886,  Vol.  IV,  p.  346. 
t  Logan,  The  Scottish  Gael,  pp.  453,  454. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  241 

at  which  wonderful  cures  are  believed  to  have 
been  performed;  but  the  superstitious  rites  have 
also  reference  to  the  motion  of  the  sun.  A  sick 
child  is  dipped  into  the  water  three  times,  but  it 
must  be  against  the  direction  of  the  sun's  mo- 
tion ;  and  the  child  is  passed  around  the  well 
nine  times,  but  now  it  must  be  in  the  same  di- 
rection with  the  motion  of  the  sun.  It  was 
deemed  unlucky  to  do  such  work  in  any  other 
way.  Pans  of  milk  should  not  be  skimmed  in 
an  order  against  the  sun's  course,  and  cream 
must  not  be  stirred  against  the  sun.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  "back"  a  disease,  the  motion 
must  be  against  the  sun.  Young  children  are 
passed  through  the  Men-an-tol — "crick-stones," 
or  hold-stones — against  the  sun  nine  times,  to  cure 
various  diseases.  Sometimes  a  bonfire  is  kindled 
on  these  stones,  and  danced  around  at  midsum- 
mer. On  the  first  Wednesday  after  midsummer 
the  waters  of  holy  wells  are  considered  especially 
virtuous.  Those  guilty  of  petty  offenses  may  be 
discovered  by  means  of  a  fire  kindled  on  a  holy 
stone.  A  stick  is  lighted,  and  the  person  who 
can  not  put  out  the  fire  of  the  burning  stick  by 
spitting  on  it  is  held  to  be  the  guilty  one.*  At 
Evreux,  in  1683,  bodies  of  dead  were  exhumed, 


*Bottrell,  Traditions  and  Hearthside  Stories  of  West  Corn- 
wall, .Second  Series,  pp.  76,  240,  241,  201,  242,  283. 


242  DEPARTED  GODS. 

and  found  with  their  faces  turned  to  the  midday 
sun.* 

Such  are  some  of  the  survivals  of  the  worship 
of  the  old  Celtic  god. 

The  stones  of  the  circle  seem  to  have  been 
replaced  by  the  images  of  the  gods  which  they 
represented.  In  a  life  of  St.  Patrick  we  read 
the  following  legend : 

"Thereafter  went  Patrick  over  the  water  to 
Mag  Slecht,  a  place  wherein  was  the  chief  idol 
of  Ireland — to-wit,  Cenn  Cruaich — covered  with 
gold  and  silver,  and  twelve  other  idols  about  it, 
covered  with  brass.  When  Patrick  saw  the  idol 
from  the  water,  whose  name  is  Guth-ard  (i.  e.  ele- 
vated its  voice),  and  when  he  drew  nigh  unto 
the  idol,  he  raised  his  hand  to  put  Jesus's  crozier 
upon  it,  and  did  not  reach  it ;  but  it  bowed  west- 
ward to  turn  on  its  right  side,  for  its  face  was 
from  the  South;  to-wit,  to  Tara.  And  the  trace 
of  the  crozier  abides  on  its  left  side  still,  and 
yet  the  crozier  moved  not  from  Patrick's  hand. 
And  the  earth  swallowed  the  twelve  other  images 
as  far  as  their  heads,  and  they  are  thus  in  sign  of 
the  miracle,  and  he  cursed  the  demon,  and  ban- 
ished him  to  hell."f 

In   the    Book   of  Leinster  we    find  it  stated 


♦Logan,  The  Scottish  Gael,  p.  479. 

tRhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  200,  201. 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  243 

that  the  ancient  Irish,  in  this  place,  used  to  sac- 
rifice the  first-born  of  their  children  and  of  their 
flocks  to  secure  peace  and  power,  milk  and 
corn. 

The  worship  of  this  idol  prevailed  in  the 
center  of  Britain.  Cenn  Cruaich,  or  "Chief  of 
the  Mound,",  has  its  etymological  equivalent  in 
the  modern  Welsh  Pen  Crug,  which,  in  the  Itin- 
erary of  Antoninus,  has  become  Pennocrucium; 
perhaps  the  same  as  the  Penkridge  in  Stafford- 
shire— written  Pencrik  in  a  charter  of  ^Ethil- 
heard  of  Wessex,  of  the  eighth  century.  Such 
spots  mark  not  only  worship  in  high  places,  but 
also  courts  of  justice  and  parliamentary  gather- 
ings. A  modern  survival  is  the  Eistethvod,  held 
in  the  interest  of  music  and  letters.  As  late  as 
1380,  Alexander  Steward  held  a  court  in  the 
temple  of  the  Rath  of  Kingusie.  Perhaps  it 
was  from  this  custom  that  the  Moot-hills  origi- 
nated. Courts  were  held  in  churches  till  prohib- 
ited by  law. 

When  Conn  the  Hundred-fighter  was  ascend- 
ing the  gorsedd  of  Tara,  he  chanced  to  tread  on 
a  certain  stone,  which  thereupon  screamed  so 
loudly  as  to  be  heard  all  over  the  land.  Then 
followed  a  thick  fog,  and  out  of  the  fog  rode  a 
fairy,  who  conducted  Conn  to  his  residence,  and 
related    to   him   the   future    history  of  Ireland. 


244  DEPARTED  GODS. 

This  stone,  called  "the  Stone  of  Fal,"  was  one 
of  the  four  precious  things  brought  to  Ireland 
by  the  Tuatha  De  Danann.  One  of  its  remark- 
able properties  was  that,  wherever  it  was  placed, 
it  secured  the  sovereignty  of  the  country  to  a 
Goidel  of  Milesian  descent.  While  it  remained 
at  Tara,  it  recognized  every  king  by  a  scream. 
This  stone  has  been  traced  from  Tara  to  Scone, 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Alban.  Edward  I 
brought  it  to  London,  where  it  now  rests  in  the 
coronation  chair  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Irish 
and  Scotch  historians  believe  that*  the  Stuarts 
are  descended  from  Goidelic  ancestors  of  the  Mi- 
lesian race.  Thus  prophecy  has  not  failed.  Since 
Fal  was  the  old  god  of  light  and  of  the  sun,  this 
stone  must  have  originally  been  connected  with 
such  worship. 

The  gorsedd,  or  court,  of  the  Eistethvod  is 
held  within  a  circle  of  stones,  which  has  been 
formed  for  the  purpose,  with  a  larger  stone  in 
the  middle.  According  to  rule,  it  is  held  "in  a 
conspicuous  place,  within  sight  and  hearing  of 
the  country  and  the  lord  in*  authority,  and  face 
to  face  with  the  sun  and  the  eye  of  light,  as 
there  is  no  power  to  hold  a  gorseth  under  cover 
or  at  night,  but  only  where  and  as  long  as  the 
sun  is  visible  in  the  heavens."  The  prayer  pro- 
nounced  at  the   opening   of  the  session  by   the 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  245 

officiating  Druid,  according  to  one  account,  runs  as 
follows : 

H  O  God,  grau t  strength  ; 
And  from  strength,  discretion; 
And  from  discretion,  knowledge ; 
And  from  knowledge,  the  right; 
And  from  the  right,  the  love  of  it; 
And  from  that  love,  love  for  all  things ; 
And  in  love  for  all  things,  the  love  of  God !" 

This  would  seem  to  be  but  a  continuation  of  the 
old  worship  of  the  Celtic  Zeus.* 

"A  species  of  divination  is  still  practiced  in 
Arthurstone  by  the  neighboring  rustic  maidens, 
who  have  little  idea  that  they  are  perpetuating 
(perverted,  indeed,  in  its  object)  the  rites  of 
Druidism  and  the  mysteries  of  Eleusis  in  their 
propitiatory  offering.  At  midnight  of  the  full 
moon,  if  a  maiden  deposit  in  the  sacred  well  be- 
neath a  cake  of  milk,  honey,  and  barley  meal, 
and  then  on  hands  and  knees  crawl  three  times 
round  the  cromlech,  she  will  see,  if  *  fancy  free,' 
the  vision  of  her  future  lord.  If  her  affections 
are  engaged,  the  form  of  the  favored  youth  will 
stand  before  her,  fearfully  bound  to  answer  truly 
her  questions  as  to  his  sincerity."  This  custom 
was  preserved  until  within  a  few  years. 

The  acts  of  Christian  councils  prove  the  prev- 

*Rhys,  HJbbert  Lectures,  lssii,  pp.  208-210. 


246  DEPARTED  GODS. 

alence  of  the  former  belief  in  the  sacred  stones. 
A  council  held  in  681  warns  the  adorers  of  idols, 
worshipers  of  stones,  and  those  who  light  torches 
in  honor  of  sacred  trees  and  fountains.  The  laws 
of  Canute  prohibit  the  worship  of  sun  and  moon, 
rocks  and  fountains.  In  Brittany  two  parties 
covenant  together  by  clasping  hands  through  per- 
forated stones. 

Some  of  the  ancient  sacred  inclosures  were  of 
great  extent.  The  temple  of  Abury,  in  Wilt- 
shire, contained  more  than  twenty-eight  acres. 
It  was  surrounded  by  a  ditch;  and  its  rampart 
was  seventy-five  feet  high,  measured  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch.  Two  avenues  were  con- 
nected with  the  temple,  and  in  the  temple  and 
its  avenues  six  hundred  and  fifty  stones  were 
used.  Some  of  the  stones  were  of  great  size — 
one  of  these  was  twenty-one  feet  high  and  eight 
feet  nine  inches  in  breadth.  The  temple  at  Car- 
nac,  in  Brittany,  was  a  remarkable  structure, 
extending  five  or  six  miles.  There  are  eleven 
rows  of  stones,  forming  ten  avenues,  and  resem- 
bling a  huge  serpent.  There  must  have  been 
originally  about  ten  thousand  stones.  Tradition 
says  that,  at  midsummer  of  each  year,  a  stone 
was  added,  so  that  the  age  of  the  world  was 
represented.  Near  this  place,  at  a  May-day 
feast,  three  hundred  unarmed  British  nobles  were 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS. 


247 


treacherously  slain  by  the  followers  of  Hengist. 
From  the  time  of  the  commission  of  this  bloody 
crime,  on  every  May-day  night,  the  shriek  of 
the  dragon  of  Britain  is  heard  over  every 
hearth  as  it  contends  with  the  dragon  of  a  for- 
eign foe. 


DRUIDICAI,  STONES,  CARNAC,  BRITTANY. 

The  literature  of  folk-lore  is  becoming  exten- 
sive. Enthusiastic  authors  connect  all  fairy  tales, 
all  superstitions,  and  all  customs  with  early  relig- 
ious beliefs  and  practices.  That  this  is  the  true 
account  of  the  origin  of  the  largest  portion  of  the 
material  we  can  not  doubt,  yet  we  may  well  hes- 
itate before  the  adoption  of  the  rule  as  one  of  uni- 
versal application.  We  can  not  but  think  that 
something  must  be  left  to  pure  and  deliberate  in- 
ventiveness,   playfulness,   and    mischievousness. 


248  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  frolicsomeness  of  children  and  the  idle  activ- 
ity of  youth  and  manhood,  may  do  something 
with  no  ulterior  object  beyond  temporary  amuse- 
ment. We  happen  to  have  known  extemporized 
plays  which  might  be  wonderfully  connected 
with  old  superstitions  and  primitive  religious  doc- 
trines. 

It  would  require  volumes  to  record  all  the  cus- 
toms similar  to  those  given  above.  They  are  not 
peculiar  to  Druidism,  but  belong  to  the  whole  hu- 
man race.  Their  meaning  is  not  exhausted  when 
we  refer  them  to  sun-worship.  Many  have  little 
reference  to  this ;  many'  more  point  to  magic, 
witchcraft,  and  other  superstitions  which  so  thor- 
oughly dominated  the  primitive  mind.  There  was 
a  multitude  of  charms  to  drive  away  evil  spirits, 
secure  fruitful  seasons,  and  insure  the  enjoyment 
of  health.  The  interested  reader  who  desires  to 
pursue  this  subject  further  should  consult  those 
larger  works  in  which  it  receives  special  treat- 
ment. 

All  these  rites,  traditions,  and  customs,  doubt- 
less point  to  the  same  early  god.  He  is  not  the 
most  primitive  Celtic  Zeus,  though  possessing  cer- 
tain characteristics  of  the  god  of  light  and  of  the 
sun,  but  the  later  expansion  of  the  god  of  the 
sky  and  of  rain.  He  had  his  altars  and  temples, 
his  sacred   trees  and   holy  wells,  and  was  wor- 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  249 

shiped  in  high  places.  His  idol  was  surrounded 
by  the  idols  of  other  gods,  who  waited  upon  him 
as  servants.  Frequently  the  sacred  tree  over- 
shadowing the  holy  well  bore  on  its  branches 
bits  of  rags  and  other  trifles  placed  there  as 
offerings  by  enthusiastic  devotees.  Sometimes 
modern  coins  are  found  among  the  gifts,  showing 
the  persistent  life  of  the  superstition. 

But  a  new  god  of  light,  Lug  by  name,  was  com- 
ing into  notice.  He  was  the  fairy  who  had 
prophesied  to  Conn  the  Hundred-fighter  the  his- 
tory of  Ireland. 

The  Goidelic  god  of  Druidism  to  whom  the 
oak  was  sacred  had  his  Welsh  counterpart  in 
Math  the  Ancient.  He  was  able,  like  the  Welsh 
fairies  and  demons,  to  hear  every  sound  of  speech 
which  ever  reached  the  air.  He  was  the  first  of 
magicians,  and  ranked  even  above  Merlin  and  the 
mac  Oc.  He  was  also  the  highest  ideal  of  jus- 
tice and  equity  associated  with  the  heathenism 
of  Wales.  He  taught  the  arts  to  Gwydion,  son 
of  Don,  the  Welsh  culture  hero,  with  whose  aid 
he  created  a  woman  out  of  flowers. 

Gwydion  was  a  great  warrior  and  a  consum- 
mate magician.  lie  was  also  the  god  of  wisdom 
and  eloquence,  and  a  much  traveled  personage, 
who  presided  over  ways  and  paths.  The  Celts 
believed  that  the  blessings  which  they  enjoyed 


250  DEPARTED  GODS. 

came  from  their  ancestors — in  other  words,  from 
the  nether  world.  The  culture  hero,  under  vari- 
ous names,  resorted  again  and  again  to  the  world 
of  spirits,  and,  either  by  force  or  by  craft,  suc- 
ceeded in  possessing  himself  of  many  desirable 
gifts,  which  he  brought  to  the  people,  and  taught 
them  to  avail  themselves  of  their  useful  proper- 
ties. Various  domestic  animals  were  procured  in 
this  manner.  The  cauldron  of  the  King  of 
Hades  was  one  of  the  most  priceless  of  these 
treasures.  It  inspired  men  with  that  skill  in  mu- 
sic and  poetry  which  has  led  to  high  triumphs. 

We  present  a  tale  as  the  representative  of  the 
rich  literature  which  has  gathered  about  this  part 
of  our  subject. 

Kei,  son  of  Kynyr ;  Owein,  son  of  Urien ; 
Kynon,  son  of  Klydno,  and  other  knights  of  Ar- 
thur's Court,  were  sitting  together  and  entertain- 
ing one  another  with  stories.  When  Kynon's 
turn  came,  he  related  the  following : 

When  he  was  a  young  man,  and  traveling 
abroad  to  satisfy  his  curiosity  and  gratify  his  love 
of  adventure,  he  came  to  a  stately  castle  in  a 
fine  valley  where  he  was  most  hospitably  re- 
ceived. After  he  had  been  refreshed,  the  lord 
of  the  castle  asked  concerning  his  name,  country, 
and  the  object  of  his  visit.  He  told  his  host 
truly,  and   was   informed  in  reply  that  were  it 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  251 

not  for  getting  him  into  trouble,  he  could  direct 
him  to  a  place  where  he  would  doubtless  find 
more  adventure  than  he  wanted.  This  served 
only  to  excite  his  curiosity,  and  make  him  more 
anxious  and  restless.  At  last  he  prevailed  upon 
his  host  to  tell  what  the  adventure  was  to  which 
he  referred.  He  told  him  to  return  to  the  forest 
through  which  he  had  just  passed,  and  proceed 
until  he  found  a  road  turning  to  his  right.  Fol- 
lowing this  road  he  would  come  to  a  large,  open 
field,  in  which  he  would  find  a  mound,  and  on  the 
top  of  this  mound  he  would  behold  a  black  man 
sitting,  as  large  as  any  two  men  of  this  world. 
He  has  but  one  foot,  and  but  one  eye,  and  that 
is  in  the  middle  of  his  forehead — a  very  Poly- 
phemus, indeed.  His  staff  would  make  a  load 
for  any  two  men  of  the  world.  He  is  the  keeper 
of  the  forest,  and  a  thousand  wild  beasts  graze 
about  him,  all  obedient  to  his  will.  This  black 
man  would  be  able  to  give  the  adventurer  further 
directions. 

Early  the  next  morning  Kynon  set  out  on  his 
journey,  and  found  all  as  his  host  had  told  him,  ex- 
cept the  black  man  seemed  far  bigger,  his  staff  a 
full  load  for  four  men,  and  three  times  as  many 
wild  beasts  grazing  about  him,  all  docile  and 
obedient.  Kynon  asked  him  concerning  his  power 
over  the  wild  animals.     "I  will  show  it  thee,  lit- 


252  DEPARTED  GODS. 

tie  man,"  said  he ;  and  with  his  great  iron  staff 
he  struck  a  blow  at  a  stag,  at  whose  bell  there 
gathered  upon  the  plain  beasts,  vipers,  and  ser- 
pents as  numerous  as  the  stars  of  the  sky.  The 
black  man  then  told  them  to  graze,  when  they 
all  lowered  their  heads  in  obeisance  to  their  lord. 
Kynon  then  inquired  his  way  to  the  adventure 
which  he  sought,  and  was  told  : 

"Take  the  road  at  the  end,  and  proceed  up- 
hill until  thou  reachest  the  top.  From  there 
thou  wilt  behold  a  strath  resembling  a  large  val- 
ley, and  in  the  middle  of  the  strath  thou  wilt 
see  a  large  tree,  whose  foliage  is  greener  than 
the  greenest  fir-tree.  Beneath  that  tree  there  is 
a  fountain ;  close  to  the  fountain  there  is  a  marble 
slab ;  and  on  the  marble  slab  there  is  a  silver  tank- 
ard, fastened  by  a  silver  chain,  so  that  they  can 
not  be  separated.  Take  the  tankard  and  throw  it, 
full  of  the  water,  over  the  slab.  Then  thou  wilt 
hear  a  great  thunder,  and  it  will  seem  to  thee  to 
make  earth  and  sky  tremble.  After  the  thunder 
will  come  a  cold  shower,  and  with  difficulty  wilt 
thou  live  through  the  shower.  It  will  be  one  of 
hail,  and  afterward  the  weather  will  be  fair  again; 
but  thou  wilt  not  find  a  single  leaf  left  on  the 
tree  by  the  shower.  Then  a  flight  of  birds  will 
come  and  light  on  the  tree.  Thou  hast  never 
heard  in  thy  country  such  good  music  as  they 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  253 

will  make;  but  when  the  music  is  most  enter- 
taining, thou  wilt  hear  a  sighing  and  a  wailing 
coming  along  the  valley  toward  thee.  There- 
upon thou  wilt  behold  on  a  jet-black  charger  a 
knight  clad  in  jet-black  satin,  with  a  flag  of  jet- 
black  silk  on  his  spear,  making  for  thee  as  fast 
as  he  can.  In  case  thou  fleest,  he  will  overtake 
thee;  and  in  case  thou  awaitest  him,  he  will 
leave  thee  a  pedestrian  instead  of  a  rider.  Should- 
est  thou  not  find  trouble  there,  thou  needest  not 
seek  any  as  long  as  thou  livest." 

Kynon  followed  the  directions  of  the  black 
man,  and  everything  which  he  had  said  came  to 
pass.  The  Black  Knight  overthrew  him,  and  took 
away  his  horse,  and  he  was  obliged  to  trudge 
back  on  foot  to  meet  the  mockery  of  the  black 
fellow  under  whose  direction  he  had  gone  forth 
in  quest  of  this  adventure. 

This  story  stirred  up  Owein,  son  of  Urien,  to 
try  a  duel  with  the  Black  Knight  of  the  Fount- 
ain. He  slipped  away  from  the  court,  and  fol- 
lowed in  the  track  of  Kynon,  met  with  the  same 
adventures  by  the  way,  and  fought  with  the 
Black  Knight,  but  succeeded  in  giving  him  a 
mortal  wound.  Thereupon  the  knight  turned 
and  fled  to  his  castle.  He  was  admitted,  and 
Owein  pursued  so  closely  that  he  was  caught 
between  two  heavy  doors,  one  of  which  was  let 

22 


254  DEPARTED  GODS. 

down  behind  so  as  to  cut  his  horse  in  two  close 
to  his  spurs.  While  in  this  sad  plight,  he  saw, 
through  a  crevice,  an  auburn-haired,  curly-headed 
maiden,  with  a  diadem  of  gold  on  her  head,  com- 
ing toward  the  gate.  She  asked  him  to  open 
the  gate.  He  said  that  he  would  be  only  too  glad 
to  comply  with  her  request  if  he  were  able. 

This  maiden  was  Elunet,  a  dear  friend  of  the 
Black  Knight's  wife,  and  she  proved  herself  also 
a  true  friend  of  Owein.  She  praised  his  gal- 
lantry, and  gave  him  a  ring  which  would  render 
him  invisible,  and  enable  him  to  escape  from  the 
men  whom  the  Black  Knight  would  send  to  lead 
him  to  execution.  Owein  was  successfully  con- 
cealed till  after  the  funeral  of  his  antagonist. 
Now,  it  happened  that  no  one  could  hold  the  do- 
minions of  the  Black  Knight  who  could  not  hold 
the  fountain,  and  no  one  could  hold  the  fountain 
except  some  of  King  Arthur's  knights.  Elunet 
pretended  to  go  to  his  court  to  obtain  a  knight, 
but  her  absence  was  so  brief  that  the  widow  de- 
tected a  deceit.  She  obtained  the  confession  that 
Owein  had  killed  her  husband,  and  this  proved 
that,  of  all  men,  he  was  most  fitted  to  hold  the 
fountain.  He  married  the  widow,  and  remained 
with  her  three  years. 

But  Arthur's  longing  for  Owein  was  so  great 
that  at  last  he  and  his  knights  set  out  in  quest 


THE  CHIEF  OF  THE  GODS.  255 

of  the  missing  hero.  They  found  him  at  the 
fountain,  and  were  feasted  at  his  castle  three 
months.  They  then  departed,  taking  with  them 
Owein.  His  wife  was  told  that  he  would  be  ab- 
sent three  months ;  but  when  again  among  his 
old  companions  he  quite  forgot  his  wife,  and  the 
three  months  became  three  years.  A  strange 
maiden  now  appeared,  riding  on  a  horse  capar- 
isoned with  gold,  who  went  straight  up  to  Owein, 
took  the  ring  from  his  hand,*  and  said  :  "  Thus 
is  done  to  a  deceiver,  a  false  traitor,  for  a  dis- 
grace to  thy  beard."  She  then  rode  away,  and 
Owein,  coming  to  himself,  thought  of  his  adven- 
ture at  the  fountain.  He  became  sad,  and,  leav- 
ing the  society  of  men,  lived  with  the  wild  beasts 
of  the  field  and  forest.  In  the  course  of  this 
unnatural  life  he  rescued  a  lion  from  a  serpent, 
and  thenceforth  this  king  of  beasts  became  his 
life-long  friend.  At  last  Elunet,  or  Lunet,  suc- 
ceeded in  uniting  him  again  with  his  wife.  He 
brought  her  to  Arthur's  court,  and  she  was  his 
wife  as  long  as  he  lived.* 

The  normal  legend  of  the  Celtic  culture  god 
represents  him  as  procuring,  as  the  reward  of 
each  adventure,  but  one,  or,  at  the  most,  but  a 
limited  number  of  treasures  from  the  world 
whither  the  fathers  have  gone.     A  few  legends, 

*  Rhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  188G,  pp.  347-353, 


256  DEPARTED  GODS. 

like  that  related  above,  make  him  slay  the  king 
of  Hades  and  marry  his  widow,  thus  gaining 
control  of  the  whole,  with  all  its  priceless 
gifts,  and  making  them  available  for  the  use 
of  man. 


II. 

THE  SUN-GOD. 

ARIONRIIOD,  the  niece  of  Math,  and  the 
mist rcss  of  Gwydion,  became  the  mother 
of  twin  boys.  The  one,  named  Dylan,  as  soon 
as  he  was  christened,  made  for  the  waters,  and 
could  at  once  swim  as  easily  as  a  fish.  We 
know  nothing  more  about  him,  except  that  his 
death  was  caused  by  a  blow  dealt  by  his  uncle, 
Govannon,  son  of  Don. 

The  other  son  was  brought  up  by  Gwydion, 
and  while  he  was  yet  in  his  boyhood  he  was 
taken  to  visit  his  mother,  who  had  never  seen 
him  since  his  birth.  She  was  enraged  to  learn 
that  his  father  had  spared  his  life,  and  laid  him 
under  a  stern  destiny  that  he  never  should  re- 
ceive a  name  till  she  herself  gave  him  one,  and 
this  she  resolutely  determined  never  to  do. 

Now  Gwydion,  by  the  use  of  magic  arts,  in 
which  he  was  a  consummate  master,  converted 
some  sedges  and  sea-weeds  into  a  full-rigged 
ship,  and  at  the  same  time  converted  himself 
and  the  lad  into  cordwainers.  They  sailed  forth, 
and  moored  their  vessel  beneath  Arionrhod's 
castle,  where  they  busily  plied  their  trade,  in 
which  they  used  only  the  most  excellent  Cordo- 

257 


258  DEPARTED  GODS. 

van  leather  which  had  ever  been  seen.  Arion- 
rhod  heard  of  the  excellent  work  of  the  strangers, 
and  sent  an  order  for  a  pair  of  shoes.  The  shoes 
were  made  and  brought  to  her,  but  found  to  be 
too  large.  Another  pair  was  ordered,  but  they 
were  too  small.  By  request  of  the  cordwainers, 
Arionrhod  repaired  to  the  ship  in  person,  that 
they  might  take  her  measure.  Just  then  a  wren 
chanced  to  light  on  the  ship,  and  the  lad  took 
aim  so  accurately  that  he  hit  the  bird.  Arion- 
rhod, pleased  at  his  cleverness,  laughed  aloud, 
and  said  that  it  was  with  a  steady  hand  that  the 
lion  hit  the  wren — Llawgyffes  Llew  hit  the  wren. 
Gwydion,  now  well-pleased,  declared  that  such 
should  thenceforth  be  the  lad's  name.  The 
magic  ship  immediately  returned  to  its  former 
elements,  and  Arionrhod  saw  that  she  had  been 
outdone.  She  now  put  him  under  another  des- 
tiny, that  he  never  should  wear  arms  till  she  her- 
self put  them  on  him,  and  this  she  resolved  that 
she  would  never  do. 

Some  years  after  this  event,  Llew  and  his 
father  presented  themselves  at  Arionrhod's  gate 
as  bards  from  South  Wales.  They  received  a 
right  hearty  welcome,  as  was  becoming  to  their 
office,  and  enjoyed  much  good  cheer.  Early  the 
next  morning  the  whole  country  was  seen  to  be 
in   commotion — the   sea  was  full  of  ships,  and 


THE  SUN-GOD.  259 

warriors  in  full  armor  were  landing  in  all  direc- 
tions. This,  too,  was  the  effect  of  the  magic  of 
Gwydion;  but  she,  though  always  determined  to 
be  on  her  guard,  did  not  suspect  the  illusion. 
By  Gwydion's  advice,  she  caused  the  castle  gates 
to  be  secured,  and  arms  to  be  brought  for  the 
two  bards.  In  fear  and  haste  her  handmaid 
helped  Gwydion  to  put  on  his  arms,  while  she 
herself  helped  Llew  to  arm  himself.  When  they 
were  fully  armed  and  prepared  to  defend  the 
castle,  the  hostile  fleet  and  forces  suddenly  dis- 
appeared. She  saw  that  she  had  again  been  de- 
ceived, and  her  anger  was  greater  than  on  either 
former  occasion.  She  put  the  young  man  under 
the  awful  destiny  that  he  should  never  have  a 
wife  of  the  race  then  inhabiting  the  earth.  But 
Gwydion  and  his  uncle  Math  were  equal  to  the 
emergency,  and  fashioned  a  woman  out  of  flow- 
ers, and  called  her  Blodened.  This  woman  was 
the  fairest  in  the  world,  and  became  the  wife  of 
Llew.  So  the  young  man  had  escaped  the  effects 
of  the  three  curses. 

But  Blodened,  after  some  years,  became  faith- 
less, and  by  the  advice  of  her  paramour  ques- 
tioned Llew  as  to  how  he  could  be  killed,  for 
she  well  knew  that  there  was  some  wonderful 
secret  connected  with  his  life.  He  told  her,  and 
told   her   truly — like  Samson   of  old — that  if  a 


260  DEPARTED  GODS. 

bath  were  prepared  for  him,  and  placed  in  the 
open  air  under  a  thatched  roof,  and  if  he  stood 
with  one  foot  on  the  side  of  the  bath  and  the 
other  foot  on,  the  back  of  a  he-goat,  any  wound 
which  he  might  receive  while  standing  in  that 
position  would  be  mortal.  She  now  persuaded  him, 
just  to  satisfy  her  innocent  curiosity,  to  assume 
the  position  which  he  had  described;  and  while 
he  was  standing  in  that  fatal  position,  her  lover 
cast  a  spear  and  inflicted  a  wound.  Llew  uttered 
an  unearthly  scream,  and  flew  off  in  the  form  of 
an  eagle.  But  Gwydion  was  able  to  find  him, 
and  healed  the  wound.  The  guilty  paramour  of 
his  faithless  wife  was  slain,  and  Blodened  was 
changed  into  the  form  of  an  owl. 

The  story  is  not  difficult  to  understand.  Llew 
was  the  god  of  the  sun,  and  Blodened  was  the 
goddess  of  the  bright  dawn.  But  the  dawn  has 
relations  not  only  to  light,  but  also  to  darkness. 
When  she  became  unfaithful  to  Llew,  he  slew 
her  paramour;  and  Gwydion  pursued  her — as 
one  account  relates  the  tale — across  the  face  of 
the  sky,  overtook  her  in  the  shades  of  the  West- 
ern cliffs,  and  transformed  her  into  a  bird  of 
night. 

The  original  name  of  this  sun-god  was  doubt- 
less not  Llew,  but  rather  Lieu,  which  may  be 
taken  to  mean  light.     This  god  is  also  related  to 


THE  SUN-GOD.  261 

the  Irish  Lug,  and  we  may  now  compare  the  ac- 
count of  Lug's  birth. 

Once  upon  a  time  there  lived  on  the  coast  of 
Donegal,  opposite  Tory  Island,  three  brothers, 
whose  names  were  Gavida,  MacSamthainn,  and 
MacKineely.  Gavida  was  a  distinguished  smith, 
and  MacKineely  was  the  lord  of  the  surrounding 
district.  The  latter  owned  a  valuable  gray  cow, 
and  to  steal  this  cow  many  attempts  had  been 
made.  At  the  same  time  Tory  Island  was  the 
headquarters  of  Balor,  a  most  notorious  robber. 
He  had  one  eye  in  the  middle  of  his  forehead, 
and  another  in  the  back  of  his  head.  Since  the 
venomous  rays  of  this  latter  eye  would  strike 
one  dead,  he  usually  kept  it  covered.  The  Druid 
who  was  his  attendant  and  priest,  revealed  to 
him  the  destiny  that  he  should  die  at  the  hand 
of  his  own  grandson.  Now  he  had  but  one  child, 
a  daughter,  Ethnea  by  name.  He  made  her  a 
prisoner  in  a  lofty  height  at  the  eastern  extrem- 
ity of  the  island,  closely  guarded  by  twelve  ma- 
trons, who  were  strictly  commanded  never  to 
mention  to  her  the  other  sex. 

Through  trickery,  Balor  succeeded  in  stealing 

MacKineely's   wonderful    gray   cow.      A  Druid 

told  the  owner  that  he  never  could  recover  the 

cow  till  Balor   was  killed.     Now  this  was  very 

difficult,  for  the  robber  was  never  known  to  close 

23 


262  DEPARTED  GODS. 

his  basilisk  eye.  A  fairy,  called  "  Biroge  of  the 
Mountain,"  came  to  the  aid  of  MacKineely,  and 
dressing  him  as  a  woman,  took  him  through  the 
air  to  the  height  Tor  More,  where  Ethnea  was 
kept  and  guarded.  She  pretended  to  have  res- 
cued the  woman,  and  asked  for  shelter.  This 
was  granted,  and  the  fairy  put  the  twelve  ma- 
trons to  sleep,  for  they  suspected  no  deceit. 
When  they  awoke,  the  guests  were  already  gone, 
they  knew  not  whither.  Ethnea  became  the 
mother  of  triplets,  which  Balor  immediately 
caused  to  be  wrapped  in  a  sheet,  and  sent  out 
to  sea  to  be  drowned  in  a  whirlpool.  The  eldest 
of  the  children  fell  into  the  sea  before  they 
reached  the  whirlpool,  and  was  caught  up  by  the 
fairy.  The  two  others  were  drowned.  The 
baby  which  the  fairy  had  rescued  was  taken  to 
MacKineely,  who  had  it  brought  up  by  his 
brother  as  a  smith.  Balor,  having  learned  that 
MacKineely  was  the  father  of  his  grandchil- 
dren— all  of  whom  he  supposed  to  be  dead — 
took  him  to  a  large  white  stone,  and  there 
chopped  off  his  head,  and  the  blood  penetrated 
the  stone  even  to  its  center.  Lug — for  this  was 
the  name  of  the  boy — grew  up  to  manhood, 
nursed  his  wrath  against  Balor,  worked  with 
Gavida  diligently  as  a  smith,  bided  his  time ;  and 
at  last,  taking   from    his   forge  an  iron  rod,  he 


Tin:  s US-GOD.  263 

thrust  it  into  Bulor's  evil  eye,  so  that  it  passed 
through  his  head  and  came  out  on  the  other 
side. 

The  Lugnassad  were  celebrated  fairs  and 
feasts  instituted  by  Lug,  and  held  on  the  first  of* 
August.  The  greatest  of  these  was  that  of  Taill- 
tin,  held  in  Meath  in  honor  of  Tailltin,  by  whom 
Lug  was  fostered  and  educated.  Similar  fairs 
were  held  also  at  Cruachau  and  Carman.  These 
assemblies  corresponded  with  the  English  Lam- 
mas which  "  seems  to  have  been  observed  with 
bread  of  new  wheat,"  and  therefore  in  some  parts 
of  England,  and  even  in  some  near  Oxford,  the 
tenants  are  bound  to  bring  in  wheat  of  that  year 
to  their  lord,  on  or  before  the  first  of  August. 
Tailltin  was  one  of  the  dawn  and  dusk  god- 
desses. 

Says  Rhys,  comprehensively  :  "  The  Lammas 
fairs  and  meetings  forming  the  Lugnassad  in  an- 
cient Ireland,  marked  the  victorious  close  of  the 
sun's  contest  with  the  powers  of  darkness  and 
death,  when  the  warmth  and  light  of  that  lumi- 
nary's rays,  after  routing  the  colds  and  blights, 
were  fast  bringing  the  crops  to  maturity ;  this, 
more  mythologically  expressed,  was  represented 
as  the  final  crushing  of  Fomori  and  Fir  Bolg,  the 
death  of  their  king  and  the  nullifying  of  their 
malignant  spells,  and  as  the  triumphant  return  of 


264  DEPARTED  GODS 

Lug  with  peace  and  plenty,  to  marry  the  maiden 
Eiinn,  and  to  enjoy  a  well-earned  banquet,  at 
which  the  fairy  host  of  dead  ancestors  was  prob- 
ably not  forgotten.  Marriages  were  solemnized 
on  the  auspicious  occasion ;  and  no  prince  who 
failed  to  be  present  en  the  last  day  of  the  fair 
durst  look  forward  to  prosperity  during  the 
coming  year." 

On  philological  grounds,  the  cult  of  Lug  may 
be  shown  to  have  originally  prevailed  through- 
out the  whole  of  the  Celtic  territory.  The  town 
of  Uxama,  in  Spain,  furnishes  an  inscription  which 
commemorates  the  building  of  a  temple  for  the 
Lugoves,  and  the  presentation  of  this  temple  to 
a  college  of  cobblers.  Avenches,  in  Switzerland, 
preserves  a  legend  consisting  of  the  single  word 
"  Lugoves  " — probably  father  and  son.  The  tem- 
ple being  dedicated  to  a  college  of  cobblers  re- 
minds us  of  the  magic  stratagem  of  Gwydion  and 
Llew  to  overreach  Arionrhod,  and  secure  a  name 
for  her  son. 

Cuchulainn  was  a  sun-hero  of  wonderful  ex- 
ploits. In  some  respects  he  seems  to  have  been 
but  a  reproduction  of  his  father  Lug,  while  in 
other  respects  he  was  more  of  a  human  hero. 
Like  all  other  sun-heroes,  his  growth  was  rapid 
and  his  young  manhood  precocious.  He  was 
beardless;    his  hair    was    dark    near    the  skin, 


THE  SUX-OOD.  265 

lood-red  in  the  middle,  and  yellow  at  the  top ; 
and  four  dimples — in  color  yellow,  green,  blue, 
and  red — adorned  both  his  cheeks.  He  had 
bright  flashing  eyes,  the  pupils  of  which  were 
formed  of  seven  or  eight  gems.  When  pressed 
in  battle,  the  calves  of  his  legs  would  twist 
round  to  the  front,  his  mouth  would  become 
large  enough  to  contain  a  man's  head,  his  liver 
and  lungs  would  come  up  and  become  visible  so 
as  to  be  seen  swinging  in  his  throat,  each  hair 
of  his  body  would  become  as  sharp  as  a  thorn, 
and  a  drop  of  blood  or  a  spark  of  fire  would 
stand  on  each,  and  his  eyes  would  be  changed 
in  a  fearful  and  marvelous  manner.  One  of  his 
eyes  became  as  small  as  a  needle's  eye,  or  sunk 
so  far  into  his  head  that  a  heron's  beak  could 
not  reach  it,  while  the  other  eye  became  corre- 
spondingly large  and  protruding.  The  ladies  of 
Ulster,  who  loved  him,  are  said  to  have  made 
themselves  blind  of  one  eye  while  conversing 
with  him.  Analogous  cases  of  acute  loyalty  are  not 
unknown  in  our  own  country.  Whenever  engaged 
in  battle  he  became  gigantic  in  size ;  and  when 
the  fighting  had  ended,  it  was  necessary  to  have 
three  baths  ready.  He  would  plunge  into  the 
first,  and  the  water  would  immediately  boil  over  ; 
he  wTould  plunge  into  the  second,  and  it  would 
instantly   become   too   hot   for  anybody   else  to 


266  DEPARTED  GODS. 

endure,  and  only  the  third  would  suffice  to  cool 
his  fiery  person.  He  rode  forth  to  battle  in  a 
scythed  chariot  drawn  by  two  steeds,  and  swifter 
than  the  blasts  of  spring,  and  the  iron  wheels  of 
his  chariot  sunk  so  deep  into  the  ground  that  it 
was  as  though  an  army  had  dug  ditches  and 
thrown  up  dikes  for  the  defense  of  the  country. 
He  was  always  distinguished  for  his  remarkable 
wisdom,  sweetness,  speech,  and  many  other  ex- 
cellencies. t 

Cuchulainn  fought  against  Ailill  and  Medb, 
king  and  queen  of  Connaught.  Ailill  was  one  of 
the  representatives  of  darkness,  while  his  queen 
wras  the  goddess  of  the  dawn  and  the  gloaming, 
and  hence  frequently  showed  Cuchulainn,  the  sun- 
god,  not  a  little  friendship.  During  these  terrible 
conflicts,  on  one  occasion,  Lug  came  from  fairy- 
land, took  the  place  of  his  son  for  three  days 
while  he  slept,  and  healed  the  wound  which  he 
had  received. 

"  Cuchulainn  was  not  more  famous  for  his 
prowess  in  the  field  of  battle  than  for  his  con- 
tests with  beasts  and  fabulous  creatures  of  all 
kinds ;  and  the  following  story,  which  has  an  in- 
terest of  its  own,  is  told  of  him  when  he  was  as 
yet  only  six  years  old.  King  Conchobar,  hap- 
pening one  day  to  visit  the  field  where  the  noble 
youths  of  his  kingdom  were  at  their  games,  was 


THE  SUN-GOD.  267 

so  struck  by  the  feats  performed  by  little  Setanta, 
that  he  invited  him  to  follow  to  a  feast  for  which 
he  and  his  courtiers  were  setting  out.  The  boy 
said  he  would  come  when  he  had  played  enough. 
The  feast  was  to  be  at  the  house  of  a  great  smith 
called  Culann,  who  lived  not  only  by  his  art  of 
working  in  metals,  but  also  by  the  wealth  which 
prophecy  and  divination  brought  in.  When  the 
king  and  his  men  had  arrived,  Culann  asked  them 
if  their  number  was  complete,  and  the  king  for- 
getting the  boy  that  was  to  follow,  answered  in 
the  affirmative.  Culann  explained  that  he  asked 
the  question  because  when  his  gates  were  shut  in 
the  evening,  he  used  to  let  loose  a  terrible  war- 
hound,  which  he  had  obtained  from  Spain  to  guard 
his  chattels  and  flocks  during  the  night.  So  it 
was  done  then;  but  presently  the  boy  Setanta 
came  along,  amusing  himself  with  his  hurlbat  and 
ball  as  was  his  wont.  He  was  hardly  aware  of 
the  dog  barking  before  it  was  at  him;  but  he 
made  short  work  of  the  brute,  though  not  with- 
out rousing  the  Ultonians  to  horror  at  their  over- 
sight, for  they  had  no  doubt  in  their  minds  that 
the  boy  had  been  torn  to  pieces.  The  gates  were 
thrown  open,  and  the  boy  was  found  unharmed, 
with  the  dog  lying  dead  at  his  feet.  Like  the 
rest,  Culann  welcomed  him,  for  his  mother's  sake, 
as  he  said,  but  he  could  not  help  expressing  his 


268  DEPARTED  GODS. 

regret  at  the  death  of  his  hound;  for  he  declared 
that  his  losing  the  guardian  of  his  house  and  his 
chattels  made  his  home  a  desolation.  Little  Se- 
tanta,  who  could  not  see  why  so  much  fuss  should 
be  made  about  the  dog,  bade  the  smith  have  no 
care,  as  he  would  himself  guard  all  his  property 
on  the  Plain  of  Murthemne  till  he  had  a  grown-up 
dog  of  the  same  breed."  * 

He  fulfilled  his  promise,  and  the  Druid  who 
was  present  gave  him  his  name,  Cu-Chulainn, 
"  Culann's  Hound." 

Now  Culann  was  a  form  of  the  deity  of  the 
other  world,  and  we  may  compare  his  hound  with 
the  Cerberus  of  Greek  mythology.  The  powers 
of  darkness  and  the  hostile  powers  of  nature  are 
the  demons  and  monsters  against  which  the  god 
of  the  sun  ever  fights. 

Our  sun-hero  had  many  most  exciting  and 
perilous  adventures  in  the  course  of  the  numer- 
ous visits  which  he  made  to  the  realm  of  the 
dead.  It  was  believed  that  when  the  sun  sank 
below  the  western  horizon  he  had  gone  to  dwell 
in  the  world  of  shades.  Thither  Cuchulninn  went 
(the  place  was  called  the  Gardens  of  Lug)  to 
carry  away  the  beautiful  Emer,  with  whom  he 
was  deeply  in  love.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
the  dusky  king  of  the  nether  world,  though  she 

*  Rhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  445,  446. 


THE  SUN-GOD.  269 

was  herself  the  very  perfection  of  grace  and 
beauty,  and  adorned  with  all  attractive  maidenly 
gifts  and  accomplishments.  We  can  not  fail  to 
recognize  in  her  the  goddess  of  the  dawn,  who 
Ins  demanded  our  attention  so  many  times.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  dawn  is  not  one 
but  many,  so  that  in  the  course  of  a  year  Cuchu- 
lainn  made  love  with  many  fair  maidens. 

On  one  occasion  a  friendly  stranger  gave  our 
hero  a  wheel  and  an  apple,  which  in  some  way 
were  to  help  him  as  he  crossed  a  difficult  plain. 
The  wheel — and  doubtless  the  apple  or  the  ball — 
was  a  symbol  of  the  sun. 

"While  the  Ultonians  were  celebrating  the 
great  festival  which  marked  the  Calends  of 
winter,  and  the  days  immediately  before  and 
after  them,  a  flock  of  wild  birds  lighted  on  a 
loch  near  them.  The  ladies  of  Conchobar's  court 
took  a  fancy  to  them,  and  Ciichulainn  was  dis- 
gusted to  find  that  they  had  nothing  better  for 
the  men  to  do  than  that  they  should  go  bird- 
catching  ;  but  when  his  gallantry  was  duly  ap- 
pealed to,  with  an  allusion  to  the  number  in 
Ulster  of  the  noble  ladies  who  were  one-eyed 
out  of  love  for  him,  he  proceeded  to  catch  the 
birds,  which  he  distributed  so  liberally  that  he 
found,  when  he  came  to  his  own  wife,  he  had  none 
left  for  her.     He  was  very  sorry  on  that  account, 


270  DEPARTED  GODS. 

and  promised  that  as  soon  as  ever  any  wild  birds 
visited  the  plain  of  Murthemne  or  the  river 
Boyne,  the  finest  pair  of  them  should  be  hers.  It 
was  not  long  ere  two  birds  were  seen  swimming 
on  the  loch.  They  were  observed  to  be  joined 
together  by  a  chain  of  ruddy  gold,  and  they  made 
a  gentle  kind  of  music,  which  caused  the  host  to 
fall  asleep.  Cuchulainn  went  towards  them;  but 
his  wife  and  his  charioteer  cautioned  him  to  have 
nothing  to  do  with  them,  as  it  was  likely  that 
there  was  some  hidden  power  behind  them.  He 
would  not  listen,  but  cast  a  stone  from  his  sling 
at  them,  which,  to  his  astonishment,  missed  them. 
He  cast  another,  with  the  same  result.  'Woe 
is  me!'  said  he.  'From  the  time  when  I  took 
arms  to  this  day  my  cast  never  missed.'  He 
next  threw  his  spear  at  them,  which  passed 
through  the  wing  of  one  of  the  birds,  and  both 
dived.  Cuchulainn,  now  in  no  happy  mood, 
"went  and  rested  against  a  stone  that  stood  near, 
and  he  fell  asleep.  He  then  dreamed  that  two 
women,  one  in  green  and  the  other  in  red,  came 
up  to  him.  The  one  in  green  smiled  at  him,  and 
struck  him  a  blow  with  a  whip ;  the  one  in  red 
did  the  same  thing,  and  this  horsewhipping  of 
the  hero  went  on  till  he  was  nearly  dead.  His 
friends  came,  and  would  have  waked  him  had 
not  one  of  them  suggested  that  he  was  probably 


THE  SUN-QOD.  271 

dreaming ;  so  they  were  careful  not  to  disturb 
his  nap.  When,  at  length,  he  woke,  he  would 
tell  them  nothing,  and  he  bade  them  place  him 
in  his  bed.  This  all  took  place  on  the  eve  of 
November,  when  the  Celtic  year  begins  with  the 
ascendency  of  the  powers  of  darkness.  When 
Cuchulainn  had  lain  in  his  bed,  speaking  to  no- 
body for  nearly  a  year,  and  the  Ultonian  nobles 
and  his  wife  happened  to  be  around  him,  some 
on  the  bed  and  the  others  close  by,  they  suddenly 
found  a  stranger  seated  on  the  side  of  the  bed. 
He  said  he  had  come  to  speak  to  Cuchulainn; 
and  he  sang  a  song,  in  which  he  informed  him 
that  he  had  come  from*  his  sister  Fand  and  his 
sister  Liban,  to  tell  him  that  they  would  soon 
heal  him  if  they  were  allowed.  Fand,  he  said 
had  conceived  great  love  for  him,  and  would  give 
him  her  hand  if  he  only  visited  her  land,  and 
treat  him  to  plenty  of  silver  and  gold,  together 
with  much  wine  to  drink.  She  would,  moreover, 
send  her  sister  Liban,  on  November-eve,  to  heal 
him.  After  having  added  that  his  own  name 
was  iEngus,  brother  to  Fand  and  Liban,  he  dis- 
appeared as  mysteriously  as  he  had  come.  Cu- 
chulainn then  sat  up  in  his  bed,  and  told  his 
friends  all  about  the  dream  which  had  made  him 
ill.  He  was  advised  to  go  to  the  spot  where  it 
occurred  to  him  twelve  months   previously ;  for 


272  DEPARTED  GODS. 

such  are  the  requirements  of  the  fairy  reckoning 
of  time.  He  did  so,  and  he  beheld  the  woman 
in  green  coming  toward  him.  He  reproached 
her  for  what  she  had  done,  and  she  explained 
that  she  and  her  sister  had  come,  not  to  harm 
him,  but  to  seek  his  love.  Fand,  she  said,  had 
been  forsaken  by  Manannan  mac  Lir,  and  had 
set  her  heart  on  him,  Ciichulainn.  Moreover, 
she  had  a  message  now  from  her  own  husband, 
Labraid  of  the  Swift  Hand  on  the  Sword,  to  the 
effect  that  he  would  give  him  Fand  to  wife  for 
one  day's  assistance  against  his  enemies.  Cu- 
chulainn  objected  that  he  was  not  well  enough 
to  fight;  but  he  was  induced  to  send  Loeg,  his 
charioteer,  with  Liban,  to  see  the  mysterious 
land  to  which  he  was  invited.  Loeg,  after  con- 
versing with  Fand  and  Labraid  of  the  Swift 
Hand  on  the  Sword,  returned  with  a  glowing 
account  of  what  he  had  seen.  This  revived  the 
drooping  spirits  of  his  master,  who  passed  his 
hand  over  his  face  and  rapidly  recovered  his 
strength.  Even  then  he  would  not  go  to  La- 
braid's  isle  on  a  woman's  invitation,  and  Loeg  had 
to  visit  it  again,  and  assure  him  that  Labraid 
was  impatiently  expecting  him  for  the  war  that 
was  about  to  be  waged.  Then,  at  length,  he 
went  thither  in  his  chariot,  and  fought.  He 
abode  there  a  month   with   Fand,  and  when  he 


THE  SUN-GOD.  273 

left  her  he  made  an  appointment  to  meet  her  at 
lbar  Cinn  Trachta,  or  the  Yew  at  the  Strand's 
End,  the  spot,  according  to  O'Curry,  where  Newry 
now  stands.  This  came  to  the  ears  of  Emer, 
Ciichulainn's  wedded  wife,  and  she,  with  the  la- 
dies of  Ulster,  repaired  there,  provided  with 
sharp  knives,  to  slay  Fand.  A  touching  scene 
follows,  in  which  Emer  recovers  Cuchulainn's 
love,  and  Fand  beholds  herself  about  to  be  for- 
saken, whereupon  she  begins  to  bewail  the  happy 
days  she  had  spent  with  her  husband  Manan- 
nftn  mac  Lir  in  her  bower  at  Dun  Inbir,  or  the 
Fort  of  the  Estuary.  Nay,  Fand's  position  in 
the  unequal  conflict  with  the  ladies  of  Ulster 
became  known  to  Manannan,  the  shape-shifting 
Son  of  the  Sea,  and  he  hastened  over  the  plain 
to  her  rescue.  'What  is  that  there?'  inquired 
Ciichulainn.  'That,'  said  Loeg,  Ms  Fand  going 
away  with  Manannan  mac  Lir,  because  she  was 
not  pleasing  to  thee.'  At. those  words  Ciichu- 
lainn went  out  of  his  mind,  and  leaped  the  three 
high  leaps  and  the  three  southern  leaps  of  Lua- 
chair.  He  remained  a  long  time  without  food 
and  without  drink,  wandering  on  the  mountains 
and  sleeping  nightly  on  the  road  of  Midluachair. 
Emer  went  to  consult  the  king  about  him,  and  it 
was  resolved  to  send  the  poets,  the  professional 
men,  and  the  Druids  of  Ulster  to  seek  him  and 


274  DEPARTED  GODS. 

bring  him  home  to  Emain.  He  would  have  slain 
them;  but  they  chanted  spells  of  Druidism 
against  him,  whereby  they  were  enabled  to  lay 
hold  of  his  arms  and  legs.  When  he  had  recov- 
ered his  senses  a  little,  he  asked  a  drink,  and 
they  gave  him  a  drink  of  forge tfulness,  which 
made  him  forget  Fand  and  all  his  adventures. 
As  Emer  was  not  in  a  much  better  state  of  mind, 
the  same  drink  was  also  administered  to  her; 
and  Manannan  had  shaken  his  cloak  between 
Fand  and  Cuchulainn  that  they  might  never 
meet  again.* 

In  this  story  the  world  of  waters  is  identified 
with  the  world  of  the  dead.  Fand,  who  has 
been  married  to  the  sea-god  Manannan  macLir, 
has  been  thought  to  be  the  sparkling  dew-drop 
wooed  by  the  sun.  In  another,  this  goddess  is 
called  "Forgall's  Tear;"  and  Forgall  is  the 
father  of  Emer,  and  dwells  in  the  Gardens 
of  Lug. 

Many  other  legends  illustrate  the  life  of  this 
god  of  the  sun,  but  we  have  presented  perhaps 
all  that  is  needed  to  a  fair  understanding  of  the 
subject. 

Diarmait,  another  sun-god,  was  slain  by  the 
boar  of  winter,  on  the  last  night  of  the  year. 
This   must   have   been  All-hallow-e'en.     In  Ire- 


'Rhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  459-462. 


THE  SUN-OOD.  275 

land  this  was  the  day  for  prophecy  and  the  un- 
veiling of  mysteries;  and  fires  were  lighted  at 
Tlachtga,  from  which  all  other  hearths  were  sup- 
plied. In  Wales,  women  were  accustomed  to 
assemble,  candle  in  hand,  to  learn  their  fortune 
from  the  flame,  and  to  learn  the  names  or  see 
the  coffins  of  all  who  were  to  die  during  the 
year;  bonfires  were  lighted  on  the  hills,  and  when 
the  last  spark  had  died  out,  the  whole  company 
would  run  away,  shouting : 

"The  cropped  black  sow 
Seize  the  hindmost!" 

This  may  have  pointed  back  to  the  period  of 
human  sacrifices. 

The  day  was  one  for  demons,  goblins,  and  all 
hideous  and  uncanny  spirits.  The  fact  is,  the 
sun-god,  for  a  season,  had  been  defeated;  and 
his  enemies,  now  triumphant,  stalked  abroad,  in- 
solent and  aggressive.  The  chief  of  these  spirits 
was  pictured  in  the  form  of  a  sow,  black  and 
grisly,  and  with  neither  tail  nor  ears.* 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  human  sac- 
rifices were  originally  offered  at  several  Celtic 
feasts.  At  the  Beltane,  in  Scotland,  held  on  the 
first  of  May,  one  man  became  a  victim  for  his 
companions. 


•Rhys,  Hibl^ert  Lectures,  188G,  pp.  513-516. 


276  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  sun-god,  under  the  name  of  Taliessin, 
was  represented  as  a  great  poet  and  bard.  As 
the  story  goes,  Kerridwen  and  her  husband,  be- 
sides other  children,  had  one  named  Avagdu, 
who  was  the  ugliest  man  in  the  world.  Despair- 
ing of  his  ever  taking  his  place  among  gentle- 
men, unless  he  possessed  surpassing  qualities  of 
mind,  his  mother  determined  to  withhold  no  ef- 
fort, and  brewed  for  him  a  magic  cauldron  of 
poesy  and  science.  Leaving  the  cauldron  in 
the  charge  of  blind  Mordav  and  Gwionthe  Lit- 
tle, she  went  her  way  to  gather  herbs  of  rare 
virtue  to  place  in  the  cauldron.  According  to 
the  magic  formula,  the  broth  was  to  boil  a  whole 
year.  But,  as  chance  would  have  it,  three  drops 
fell  on  one  of  Gwion's  fingers,  and  burned  it  so 
that  he  thrust  it  in  his  mouth.  Upon  doing  this, 
immediately  he  knew  everything.  He  knew 
that  he  had  everything  to  fear  from  Kerridwen. 
So  he  fled  for  his  life;  and  the  cauldron  burst, 
and  the  broth  was  wasted.  He  was  pursued, 
and  to  escape,  often  changed  his  form;  but  Ker- 
ridwen was  ever  close  on  his  track.  At  last, 
when  he  became  a  grain,  Kerridwen  became  a 
crested  black  hen,  and  devoured  him.  Being 
born  again,  he  was  wrapped  in  a  hide,  and  cast 
into  the  sea.  The  hide  was  picked  up  on  one  of 
the  stakes  of  Gwydno's  fish-net,  on  the  first  of 


THE  SUN-GOD.  277 

May.  This  young  adventurer  was  Taliessin, 
who  very  soon  recited  three  poems,  and  demon- 
strated his  precocious  development  in  wisdom 
and  speech. 

The  magic  broth  was  brewed  for  Avagdu, 
who  was  known  to  the  Welsh  as  a  synonym  for 
Hell.  We  have  already  remarked  the  deriva- 
tion of  poetry  and  all  knowledge  from  the  powers 
of  the  nether  world.  Without  relating  the  story 
of  Taliessin  further,  we  follow  the  line  of  thought 
suggested  by  the  three  drops  of  magic  broth. 

We  may  compare  the  Irish  Finn  with  Gwion. 
To  guard  him  from  his  enemies,  he  was  sent  to 
be  educated  by  a  poet,  also  named  Finn.  The 
boy  found  the  poet  watching  Fiac's  Pool,  in  the 
Boyne,  to  catch  one  of  the  "Salmon  of  Knowl- 
edge." There  was  a  prophecy  that  one  of  these 
would  be  caught  by  Finn,  who,  after  eating  it, 
would  know  everything.  At  the  end  of  seven 
years  he  caught  the  fish,  and  handed  it  to  his 
pupil  to  cook.  The  boy  burned  his  thumb,  and 
put  it  in  his  mouth.  His  tutor  learned  this,  and 
also  that  his  name  was  Finn.  Recognizing  the 
fulfillment  of  prophecy,  he  gave  him  the  whole 
Salmon  of  Knowledge.  Whenever,  thereafter, 
Finn  wished  to  know  anything  he  had  only  to 
chew  his  thumb,  and  all  knowledge  was  immedi- 
ately present  to  his  mind. 

24 


278  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Says  Professor  O'Curry:  "In  these  very 
early  times  there  was  a  certain  mystical  fount- 
ain, which  was  called  Connla's  Well — situated, 
so  far  as  we  can  gather,  in  Lower  Ormond.  As 
to  who  this  Connla  was,  from  whom  the  well 
had  its  name,  we  are  not  told;  but  the  well  it- 
self appears  to  have  been  regarded  as  another 
Helicon  by  the  ancient  Irish  poets.  Over  this 
well  there  grew,  according  to  the  legend,  nine 
beautiful  mystical  hazel-trees,  which  annually 
sent  forth  their  blossoms  and  fruits  simultane- 
ously. The  nuts  were  of  the  richest  crimson 
color,  and  teemed  with  the  knowledge  of  all  that 
was  refined  in  literature,  poetry,  and  art.  No 
sooner,  however,  were  the  beautiful  nuts  pro- 
duced on  the  trees,  than  they  always  dropped 
into  the  well,  raising,  by  their  fall,  a  succession 
of  shining  red  bubbles.  Now,  during  this  time, 
the  water  was  always  full  of  salmon;  and  no 
sooner  did  the  bubbles  appear  than  these  salmon 
darted  to  the  surface  and  ate  the  nuts,  after 
which  they  made  their  way  to  the  river.  The 
eating  of  the  nuts  produced  brilliant  crimson 
spots  on  the  bellies  of  the  salmon;  and  to  catch 
and  eat  these  salmon  became  an  object  of  more 
than  mere  gastronomic  interest  among  those  who 
were  anxious  to  become  distinguished  in  the 
arts  and  in  literature,  without  being  at  the  pains 


THE  SUN-GOD.  279 

and  delay  of  long  study;  for  the  fish  was  sup- 
posed to  have  become  filled  with  the  knowledge 
which  was  contained  in  the  nuts,  which,  it  was 
believed,  would  be  transferred  in  full  to  those 
who  had  the  good  fortune  to  catch  and  eat 
them."* 

It  is  related  that  Sinann,  daughter  of  Lodon, 
son  of  Lir,  once  upon  a  time,  looked  into  the 
sacred  well,  when  the  water  burst  forth,  and 
pursued  and  drowned  her  for  the  insult.  This 
was  the  origin  of  the  river  Shannon.  A  similar 
story  is  related  concerning  a  lady,  Boann  by 
name.  She  looked  into  the  sacred  well,  and  an 
infuriated  stream  pursued  her  even  to  the  sea, 
where  she  was  drowned.  This  stream  is  the 
river  Boyne. 

We  may  compare  this  Celtic  Tree  of  Knowl- 
edge, and  the  fountain  beneath  its  shade,  with 
the  mighty  Ash  of  the  Norse,  and  Mimer's  Spring 
under  one  of  its  roots,  for  one  draught  of  which 
Odin  pledged  his  eye. 

Among  the  gods  mentioned  in  this  discussion 
stands  prominently  Manannan,  the  god  of  the 
sea.  He  is  represented  as  a  celebrated  merchant 
of  the  Isle  of  Man,  .and  the  best  pilot  in  the 
west  of  Europe.  He  was  able  to  foretell  foul  or 
fair  weather,  with  absolute  certainty,  by  study- 

*  KhjH,  Hibbert  U'tturt'B,  188G,  pp.  553,  554. 


280  DEPARTED  GODS. 

ing  the  stars.  He  was  the  son  of  Lir — the 
original  of  Shakspeare's  King  Lear — but  is  also 
called  the  son  of  Allot,  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Tuatha  De  Danann.  In  Irish  story  he  is  the 
chief  of  the  fairies  of  the  Land  of  Promise. 

His  Welsh  counterpart  is  Manawyddan,  who 
is  described  as  peaceful,  gentle,  and  just.  Bran, 
the  brother  of  Manawyddan,  gave  his  sister  in 
marriage  to  Matholwch,  king  of  Ireland,  but  she 
was  disgraced  and  driven  from  the  court,  and  yet 
because  of  no  fault  of  her  own.  Her  brother 
made  an  expedition  to  Ireland  to  avenge  her 
wrongs.  Since  no  ship  could  be  constructed 
large  enough  to  receive  him,  he  was  compelled 
to  wade  the  intervening  waters. 

"As  he  approached  the  Irish  shore  the  swine- 
herds of  Erinn  hastened  to  Matholweh's  court 
with  the  strange  story  that  they  had  seen  a  for- 
est on  the  sea,  and  near  it  a  great  mountain  with 
its  spur  flanked  by  two  lakes;  they  added  that 
both  forest  and  mountain  were  in  motion  towards 
the  land.  Nobody  could  explain  this  until  Bran- 
wren  was  summoned,  and  she  told  them  that  the 
trees  were  the  masts  of  her  countrymen's  vessels, 
that  the  mountain  they  had  seen  must  be  her 
brother  wading  through  shallow  water,  and  that 
the  mountain  spur  with  the  two  lakes  were  his 
nose  and  eyes ;  she  opined  that  his  countenance 


THE  SUN-GOD.  2*1 

betokened  anger  towards  Erinn.  Matholweh  and 
his  host  hastened  to  place  a  river  between  them 
and  the  invaders.  When  the  latter  reached  the 
stream,  they  found  the  bridge  over  it  gone  and 
the  current  impassable,  until  Bran  laid  himself 
across  its  bed,  and  hurdles  were  placed  on  his 
body,  so  that  his  men  passed  over  safely." 

Reconciliation  was  effected,  and  the  Irish  built 
for  Bran  a  great  palace.  But  peace  continued 
not ;  for  again  there  was  a  quarrel,  resulting  in  a 
great  slaughter  in  the  palace,  whence  only  Bran 
and  seven  of  his  men  escaped  alive.  Having 
been  wounded  he  ordered  his  men  to  cut  off  his 
head  and  take  it  with  them  to  their  own  country. 
These  seven  men  sat  seven  years  at  dinner  at 
Harlech,  in  the  society  of  Bran's  head,  listening 
to  the  song  of  the  Birds  of  Rhiannon ;  and  then 
they  feasted  eighty  years  in  the  island  of  Gwales. 
Much  is  said  in  Celtic  literature  concerning  this 
wonderful  head.  Cernunnos,  who  may  be  the 
same — of  whom  we  shall  have  more  to  say  in  a 
future  chapter — is  sometimes  represented  as  a 
mere  head  or  as  a  triple  head. 

There  are  several  other  Celtic  gods  which 
might  be  mentioned,  but  the  limits  of  this  work 
do  not  permit  any  detailed  study  of  their 
characters. 

The  key  to  the  solution  of  this  mythological 


282  DEPARTED  OODS. 

system  has  already  been  given — the  friendly  or 
malevolent  character  of  these  divinities  and  spir- 
its with  reference  to  the  world  and  man.  The 
cold  mists  and  baleful  fogs  which  retard  vegeta- 
tion; the  excessive  damps  so  injurious  to  crops, 
and  the  processes  of  corruption  so  difficult  for 
primitive  peoples  to  understand ;  the  consuming 
drought  of  summer;  the  early  frosts  and  the  late 
wintry  storms, — these  are  some  of  the  facts  which 
our  fathers  sought  to  explain.  Frequently  what 
is  presented  in  ancient  story  as  early  wars  be- 
tween hostile  tribes  is  but  the  ever  repeated  con- 
flict between  good  and  evil  spirits. 

The  custom  of  the  Celts  of  all  times  concern- 
ing the  disposition  of  the  dead  points  to  the  doc- 
trine of  immortality.  The  departed  journeyed 
to  some  happy  home,  frequently  located  in  the 
west.  "  A  general  belief  of  the  Gael  was  that 
the  future  state  of  permanent  happiness  was  in 
Flath-innis,  a  remote  island  in  the  west ;  but  they 
also  thought  that  particular  clans  had  certain 
hills  to  which  the  spirits  of  their  departed  friends 
had  a  peculiar  attachment."* 

Baring-Gould,  on  the  authority  of  Macpherson, 
relates  the  following  legend  : 

"  One  day  a  famous  Druid  of  Skerr  sat  upon 
the  rocks   by  the   sea-shore,   musing.     A  storm 

*  Logan,  The  Scottish  Gael,  p.  463. 


THE  SUX-GOD.  283 

arose,  the  waves  dashed  high  and  the  winds  howled. 
Out  of  it  a  boat,  with  white  sails  and  gleaming  oars, 
emerged.  In  it  were  no  sailors ;  the  boat  seemed 
to  live  and  move  of  itself.  A  voice  called  to 
the  Druid  :  '  Arise,  and  see  the  Green  Isle  of  those 
who  have  passed  away  !'  He  entered  the  boat ; 
the  wind  shifted  at  once,  and  amid  clouds  and 
spray  he  sailed  forth.  Seven  days  gleamed  on 
him  through  the  mist;  on  the  eighth  the  waves 
rolled  violently,  the  vessel  pitched,  and  darkness 
thickened  around  him,  when  suddenly  he  heard  a 
cry,  '  The  Isle !  the  Isle !'  The  clouds  parted  be- 
fore him,  the  waves  abated,  the  wind  died  away, 
and  the  vessel  rushed  into  dazzling  light.  Be- 
fore his  eyes  lay  the  isle  of  the  departed,  bask- 
ing in  golden  light.  Its  hills  sloped,  green  and 
tufted  with  beauteous  trees,  to  the  shore ;  the 
mountain-tops  were  enveloped  in  bright  and  trans- 
parent clouds,  from  which  gushed  limpid  streams, 
which,  wandering  down  the  steep  hill-sides  with 
pleasant  harp-like  murmur,  emptied  themselves 
into  the  twinkling,  blue  bays;  the  valleys  were 
open  and  free  to  the  ocean ;  trees  loaded  with 
leaves,  which  scarcely  waved  to  the  light  breeze, 
were  scattered  on  the  green  declivities  and  rising 
ground;  all  was  calm  and  bright;  the  pure  sun  of 
autumn  shone  from  his  blue  sky  on  the  fields ;  he 
hastened  not  to  the  west  for  repose,  nor  was  he 


284  DEPARTED  GODS. 

seen  to  rise  in  the  east,  but  hung  as  a  golden 
lamp,  ever  illuminating  the  Fortunate.  There,  in 
radiant  halls,  dwelt  the  spirits  of  the  departed, 
ever  blooming  and  beautiful,  ever  laughing  and 

gay-" 

About  the  year  575  the  learned  classes  of  Ire- 
land were  organized  by  a  Parliament,  which  was 
held  at  Druimceta.  Three  orders  were  recog- 
nized— Gradh  Ecna,  Gradh  Fene,  and  Gradh  Fili. 
Ecna  means  wisdom,  and  its  graduate  is  a  Sai  or 
sage.  The  sage  who  graduates  in  its  highest  de- 
gree is  Ollamh,  and  enjoys  the  rank  of  a  tribe- 
king.  He  settles  all  questions  between  tribes, 
interprets  laws,  decides  concerning  the  succession 
of  chiefs,  and  is  the  historian  and  genealogist  of 
the  tribe.  The  function  of  judge  passed  from  the 
Druids  to  the  chiefs.  The  judge  was  a  Sai,  and 
kept  a  kind  of  law-school.  The  chief,  when  the 
office  devolved  upon  him,  and  he  did  not  wish  to 
perform  its  duties  personally,  appointed  another 
to  the  judgeship.  Hence  arose  the  second  learned 
class,  the  Gradh  Fene.  The  Fili  represented  the 
Ovates,  and  some  of  the  forms  of  their  incanta- 
tions have  been  preserved.  The  Ollamh  Fili  pro- 
nounced eulogies  in  praise  of  his  chief,  and  earned 
for  himself  various  emoluments.  The  Bards,  who 
recited  stories  and  poems,  were  at  first  distinct 
from  the  Fili,  but  the  two  orders  afterward  coa- 


THE  SUN-GOD.  285 

lesced.  To  the  Druidic  order  probably  belonged 
the  physician,  the  Fath-Liag.  Dian  Cecht  was 
the  old  god  of  healing.  The  influence  of  Druid- 
ism  is  seen  in  the  organization  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian Churches  of  England  and  Ireland.  When  a 
Christian  missionary  succeeded  in  leading  a  chief 
and  some  of  the  principal  men  of  his  tribe  to 
Christ,  the  missionary  himself  was  frequently 
adopted  into  the  tribe  as  a  Sai,  and  enjoyed  the 
same  rank  and  privileges  as  a  Druidic  priest.  The 
learned  orders  remained  the  same,  but  Christian 
doctrines  were  added  to  the  studies.  The  organ- 
ization of  the  early  schools  of  Ireland  was  influ- 
enced by  Druidism.  The  course  of  study,  called 
Filidecht,  which  the  Ollamh  Fili  pursued,  occupied 
twelve  years,  and  included  the  secret  language 
of  the  poets,  the  knowledge  of  numerous  tales 
and  poems,  the  art  of  vaticination,  and  other 
lore. 

In  Wales  each  king  or  prince  had  a  household 
bard,  called  Bardd  Teulen,  to  whom  the  functions 
of  the  Irish  Sai  and  Fili  belonged.  There  was 
also  a  chief  bard,  called  Pencedd,  who  was  either 
an  officer  of  the  household  or  sometimes  inde- 
pendent. Like  an  Ollamh,  he  could  make  a  cir- 
cuit for  purposes  of  song,  or  keep  a  school  for 
the  study  of  poetry.  He  enjoyed  many  priv- 
ileges and  emoluments,  and  was  one  of  the  four- 


286  DEPARTED  OODS. 

teen  persons  who  were  entitled  to  a  chair  at  the 
court. 

The  modern  bards  of  Wales  are  thought  by 
some  writers  to  be  the  religious  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Druids,  or,  at  least,  to  be  the  depos- 
itaries of  genuine  Druidic  lore.  The  system  of 
Neo-Druidism  is  gigantic  and  carefully  wrought ; 
but  the  evidence  upon  which  it  is  based  is  far 
from  satisfactory.  We  may,  however,  thankfully 
admit  that  it  contains  not  a  few  fragments  of 
ancient  wisdom. 

Several  volumes  of  mystic  learning  have  been 
published.  A  few  passages  from  the  teachings 
of  the  modern  bards  will  not  be  out  of  place : 

"When  God  pronounced  his  name,  with  the 
word  sprang  the  light  and  the  life ;  for  previ- 
ously there  was  no  life  except  God  himself." 
The  form  of  the  light  was  the  unpronounceable 
name  of  God  in  the  three  mystic  characters  by 
which  God  declared  his  "  existence,  life,  knowl- 
edge, power,  eternity,  and  universality."  "And 
in  the  declaration  was  his  love ;  that  is,  co-instan- 
taneously  with  it  sprang,  like  lightning,  all  the 
universe  into  life  and  existence,  co-vocally  and 
co-jubilantly  with  the  uttered  name  of  God,  in 
one  united  song  of  exultation  and  joy."  From 
this  revelation   of  the  name  of  God,  Menw  the 


THE  SUX-GOD.  287 

Aged,  son  of  Menwd,  obtained  the  three  letters 
from  which  he  formed  the  alphabet.  This  mystic 
name  must  not  be  uttered  in  the  hearing  of  any 
man  in  the  world.  M  Nevertheless,  everything 
calls  him  inwardly  by  this  name — the  sea  and 
land,  earth  and  air,  and  all  the  visibles  and  in- 
visibles of  the  world,  whether  on  the  earth  or  in 
the  sky ;  all  the  worlds  of  the  celestials  and  ter- 
restrials, every  intellectual  being  and  existence, 
everything  animate  and  inanimate.  Wherefore 
none  that  honors  God  will  call  him  by  this  name, 
except  inwardly." 

Much  of  the  teaching  of  the  modern  bards  is 
given  in  triads,  of  which  we  give  examples  : 

"  Three  things  will  necessarily  exist :  the  su- 
preme power,  the  supreme  intelligence,  and  the 
supreme  love  of  God. 

"  The  three  characteristics  of  God  :  complete 
life,  complete  knowledge,  and  complete  power. 

"The  three  manifestations  of  God:  father- 
hood, sonship,  and  spirituality. 

"  The  three  supports  of  a  moral  man :  God, 
his  own  conscience,  and  the  praise  of  all  the 
wise. 

"  The  three  felicities  of  heaven  :  the  utter 
subjugation  of  all  evil,  everlasting  life,  and  the 
endless  renovation  of  bliss."  * 


v  Williams,  Barddas,  Vol.  I,  pp.  17-23,  171,  183,  185. 


288  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  bards  of  Neo-Druidism  teach  both  the 
pre-existence  and  the  transmigration  of  souls. 
Existence  begins  in  the  lowest  form  of  life,  and 
at  each  successive  death  passes  into  some  other 
body,  till  all  possible  lower  existences  have  been 
traversed,  when  it  enters  the  body  of  man.  He 
can  choose  good  or  evil.  If  he  choose  good,  and 
good  predominate  at  his  death,  he  enters  Gwyn- 
vyd,  or  heaven,  from  which  he  can  not  fall.  If 
he  choose  evil,  and  evil  predominate  at  his  death, 
the  soul  appears  in  some  lower  animal  correspond- 
ing in  character  to  his  own  character  at  death. 
He  may  now  rise  step  by  step  till  he  again  be- 
comes a  man,  when  he  has  another  opportunity 
of  choosing.  He  may  fall  again  and  again,  but 
ultimate  success  is  assured,  because  the  same  sin 
can  not  be  committed  or  can  not  produce  the 
same  evil  results  the  second  time.  So  all  life 
will  end  in  Gwynvyd.  The  soul  begins  exist- 
ence in  lowest  Annwn,  passes  through  the  irre- 
sponsible lives  of  the  circle  of  Abred  below  man, 
in  which  evil  predominates;  passes  through  the 
responsible  human  circle  of  existence,  in  which 
good  and  evil  equiponderate ;  and  finally  en- 
ters Gwynvyd,  where  good  predominates,  and 
from  which  the  soul  can  not  fall.  Man  seems 
not    to    be    free   to   choose   precisely   the   same 


THE  SUN-GOD.  289 

evil   the  second  time ;   hence   heaven  is   finally 
assured.* 

The  white  robe  of  the  Druid  is  a  symbol  of 
holiness,  the  green  robe  of  the  Ovate  a  symbol 
of  knowledge,  and  the  blue  robe  of  the  Bard  a 
symbol  of  peace  and  love. 

•Williams,  Bardda*,  Vol.  I,  pp.  xlii,  213-217. 


III. 

THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE    INSCRIPTIONS. 

WE  shall  now  be  prepared  to  appreciate  what 
classic  writers  say  concerning  the  relig- 
ion of  the  Celts.  We  may  also  listen  to  the 
voice  of  monumental  witnesses. 

Caesar  is  a  very  trustworthy  authority.  He 
speaks  from  personal  knowledge  in  many  cases, 
as  he  always  had  access  to  many  reliable  sources 
of  information.  He  writes  with  deliberation  and 
judgment,  and  furnishes  the  fullest  and  most  sat- 
isfactory account  of  all  the  writers  who  have 
treated  the  subject:  As  to  integrity  and  hon- 
esty, he  is  an  unimpeachable  witness.  Speaking 
of  the  Druids  of  Gaul,  he  says : 

"  They  preside  over  sacred  things,  have  the 
charge  of  public  and  private  sacrifices,  and  ex- 
plain their  religion.  To  them  a  great  number  of 
youths  have  recourse  for  the  sake  of  acquiring 
instruction,  and  they  are  in  great  honor  among 
them;  for  they  generally  settle  all  their  disputes, 
both  public  and  private ;  and  if  there  is  any 
transgression  perpetrated,  any  murder  committed, 
or  any  dispute  about  inheritance  or  boundaries, 

290 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.      291 

they  decide  in  respect  of  them.  They  appoint 
rewards  and  penalties;  and  if  any  private  or 
public  person  abides  not  by  their  advice,  they 
restrain  him  from  the  sacrifices.  This  with  them 
is  the  most  severe  punishment.  .  .  .  But  one 
presides  over  all  these  Druids,  who  possesses 
the  supreme  authority  among  them.  ...  At  a 
certain  time  of  the  year  they  assemble  in  session 
on  a  consecrated  spot  in  the  confines  of  the  Car- 
nutes,  which  is  considered  the  central  region  of 
the  whole  of  Gaul.  Thither  all  who  have  any 
disputes  come  together  from  every  side,  and  ac- 
quiesce in  their  judgments  and  decisions.  The 
institution  is  thought  to  have  originated  in  Britain, 
and  to  have  been  thence  introduced  into  Gaul ; 
and  even  now  those  who  wish  to  become  more 
accurately  acquainted  with  it  generally  repair 
thither  for  the  sake  of  learning  it.  The  Druids 
usually  abstain  from  war;  nor  do  they  pay  taxes 
together  with  the  others.  They  have  exemption 
from  warfare,  and  the  free  use  of  all  things.  .  .  . 
Some  continue  at  their  education  for  twenty 
years.  Nor  do  they  deem  it  lawful  to  commit 
those  things  to  writing,  though  generally,  in 
other  cases,  and  in  their  public  and  private  ac- 
counts, they  use  Greek  letters.  They  appear  to 
me  to  have  established  this  custom  for  two  rea- 
sons :   because  they  would  not  have  their  tenets 


292  DEPARTED  GODS. 

published,  and  because  they  would  not  have 
those  who  learn  them  by  trusting  to  letters  neg- 
lect the  exercise  of  memory.  ...  In  particular 
they  wish  to  inculcate  the  idea  that  souls  do  not 
die,  but  pass,  after  death,  from  one  body  to  an- 
other. .  .  .  They  also  dispute  largely  concerning 
the  stars  and  their  motion,  the  magnitude  of  the 
world  and  the  earth,  the  nature  of  things,  the 
force  and  power  of  the  immortal  gods,  and  in- 
struct the  youth  in  their  principles.  The  whole 
nation  of  the  Gauls  is  very  much  given  to  relig- 
ious observances,  and  on  that  account  those  who 
are  afflicted  with  grievous  diseases,  and  those 
who  are  engaged  in  battles  and  perils,  either  im- 
molate men  as  sacrifices  or  vow  that  they  will 
immolate  themselves ;  and  they  employ  the 
Druids  as  ministers  of  those  sacrifices,  because 
they  think  that  if  the  life  of  man  is  not  given 
for  the  life  of  man  the  immortal  gods  can  not  be 
appeased.  They  have  also  instituted  public  sac- 
rifices of  the  same  kind.  Some  have  images  of 
immense  size,  the  limbs  of  which,  interwoven 
with  twigs,  they  fill  with  living  men ;  and  the 
same  being  set  on  fire,  the  men,  surrounded  by 
the  flames,  are  put  to  death."  * 

For  these  sacrifices  they  preferred  criminals ; 
but  when  these  failed,  they  did  not  hesitate  to 

*  Gallic  War,  vi,  13-18. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND   THE  INSCRIPTIONS.      293 

sacrifice  the  innocent.  They  worshiped  certain 
gods  which  Ctesar  identified  with  Mercury,  Apollo, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Minerva. 

Strabo  gives  the  following  account :  "  Amongst 
the  Gauls  there  are  generally  three  divisions  of 
men  especially  reverenced — the  Bards,  the  Vates, 
and  the  Druids.  The  Bards  composed  and 
chanted  hymns;  the  Vates  occupied  themselves 
with  the  sacrifices  and  the  study  of  nature ; 
while  the  Druids  joined  to  the  study  of  nature 
that  of  moral  philosophy.  The  belief  in  the 
justice  of  the  Druids  is  so  great  that  the  decis- 
ion both  of  public  and  private  disputes  is  referred 
to  them;  and  they  have  before  now,  by  their 
decision,  prevented  armies  from  engaging  when 
drawn  up  in  battle  array  against  each  other. 
All  cases  of  murder  are  particularly  referred 
to  them.  When  there  is  plenty  of  these,  they 
imagine  there  will  likewise  be  a  plentiful  harvest. 
Both  these  and  the  others  assert  that  the  soul  is 
indestructible,  and  likewise  the  world  j  but  that 
sometimes  fire  and  sometimes  water  have  pre- 
vailed in  making  great  changes." 

The  Romans  put  a  stop  to  their  modes  of  sac- 
rifice and  divination.  They  would  strike  a  man 
devoted  as  an  offering  in  his  back  with  a  sword, 
and  divine,  from  his  convulsive  throes.  Without 
the  Druids  they  never  sacrifice.     It  is  said  they 


294  DEPARTED  GODS. 

have  other  modes  of  sacrificing  their  human  vic- 
tims ;  that  they  pierce  some  of  them  with  ar- 
rows, and  crucify  others  in  their  temples ;  and 
that  they  prepare  a  colossus  of  hay  and  wood, 
into  which  they  put  cattle,  beasts  of  all  kinds, 
and  men,  and  then  set  fire  to  it. 

"  They  say  that  in  the  ocean,  not  far  from  the 
const,  there  is  a  small  island  lying  opposite  to 
the  outlet  of  the  river  Loire,  inhabited  by  Sam- 
nite  women,  who  are  Bacchantes,  and  conciliate 
and  appease  that  god  by  mysteries  and  sacrifices. 
No  man  is  permitted  to  land  on  the  island.  .  .  . 
They  have  a  custom  of  once  a  year  unroofing 
the  whole  of  the  temple,  and  roofing  it  again  the 
same  day  before  sunset,  each  one  bringing  some 
of  the  materials.  If  any  one  lets  her  burden 
fall,  she  is  torn  in  pieces  by  the  others,  and  her 
limbs  carried  round  the  temple  with  wild  shouts, 
which  they  never  cease  till  their  rage  is  ex- 
hausted. They  say  it  always  happens  that  some 
one  drops  her  burden,  and  is  thus  sacrificed." 

The  inhabitants  of  Ierna,  or  Hibernia,  are 
"more  savage  than  the  Britains,  feeding  on  hu- 
man flesh,  and  are  enormous  eaters,  even  deeming 
it  commendable  to  devour  their  deceased  fathers." 
They  are  openly  impure  and  incestuous. 

"It  is  reported  that  the  Cimbri  had  a  pecul- 
iar  custom.      They  were   accompanied   in  their 


THE  CLASSICS  AXD  1  BE  IXSCRIPTIONS.       295 

expeditions  by  their  wives ;  these  were  followed 
by  hoary-headed  priestesses,  clad  in  white,  with 
cloaks  of  carbasus  fastened  on  with  clasps,  girt 
with  brazen  girdles,  and  barefooted.  These  in- 
dividuals, bearing  drawn  swords,  went  to  meet 
the  captives  throughout  the  camp,  and  having 
crowned  them,  led  them  to  a  brazen  vessel  con- 
taining about  twenty  amphorae,  and  placed  on  a 
raised  platform,  winch  one  of  the  priestesses 
having  ascended,  and  holding  the  prisoner  above 
the  vessel,  cut  his  throat;  then,  from  the  manner 
in  which  the  blood  flowed  into  the  vessel,  some 
drew  certain  divinations,  while  others,  having 
opened  the  corpse  and  inspected  the  entrails, 
prophesied  victory  to  their  army."  * 

Artemidorus  says  that  there  is  an  island  near 
Britain  in  which  they  perform  sacrifices  to  Ceres 
and  Proserpine  in  the  same  manner  as  they  do  in 
Samothrace.f 

Diodorus  Siculus  writes  of  the  Druids  of  Gaul 
as  follows : 

"And  there  are  among  them  composers  of 
verses,  whom  they  call  Bards ;  these,  singing  to 
instruments  similar  to  a  lyre,  applaud  some, 
while  they  vituperate  others.  There  are  also 
certain  philosophers  and  priests,  surpassingly  es- 

•Stralx),  IV,  iv,  4-6;  v,  4;  VII,  ii,  3. 
tStrabo,  IV,  iv,  0. 


296  DEPARTED  GODS. 

teemed,  whom  they  call  Druids.  They  have  also 
soothsayers,  who  are  held  in  high  estimation; 
and  these,  by  auguries  and  the  sacrifice  of  vic- 
tims, foretell  future  events,  and  hold  the  com- 
monalty in  complete  subjection;  and  more  es- 
pecially, when  they  deliberate  on  matters  of 
moment,  they  practice  a  strange  and  incredible 
rite-;  for,  having  devoted  a  man  for  sacrifice, 
they  strike  him  with  a  sword  on  a  part  above 
the  diaphragm;  the  victim  having  fallen,  they 
augur  from  his  mode  of  falling,  the  contortion  of 
his  limbs,  and  the  flowing  of  the  blood,  what 
may  come  to  pass,  giving  credence  concerning 
such  things  according  to  an  ancient  and  long- 
standing observance.  They  have  a  custom  of 
performing  no  sacrifice  unattended  by  a  philoso- 
pher; for  they  say  that  thanksgiving  should  be 
offered  to  the  gods  by  men  acquainted  writh  the 
divine  nature  and  using  the  same  language,  and 
by  these  they  deem  it  necessary  to  ask  for  good 
things;  and  not  only  in  the  concerns  of  peace, 
but  even  of  war — not  friends  alone,  but  even 
enemies  also — chiefly  defer  to  them  and  to  the 
composers  of  verses.  Frequently,  during  hostil- 
ities, when  armies  are  approaching  each  other 
with  swords  drawn  and  lances  extended,  these 
men,  rushing  between  them,  put  an  end  to  their 


TBS  CLASSICS   \M>  THE  i.xsi  RJPTION&       297 

contention,  taming  them  as  they  would  tame  wild 
beasts."* 

Diodorus  quotes  from  Hecateus,  the  Melesian, 
who  wrote  about  B.  C.  500: 

"Among  the  Hyperboreans  were  men — priests, 
as  it  were,  of  Apollo — constantly  hymning  lyric 
songs  in  his  praise.  Also  in  that  island  was  a 
consecrated  precinct  of  great  magnificence,  a 
temple  of  corresponding  beauty,  in  shape  spher- 
ical, adorned  with  numerous  dedicated  gifts;  also 
a  citj£  sacred  to  the  god,  the  majority  of  its  in- 
habitants harpers,  who,  continually  harping  in 
the  temple,  sung  lyrical  hymns  to  the  god, 
greatly  magnifying  his  deeds.  .  .  .  Every 
nineteenth  year  the  god  descends  into  this 
island.  This  was  the  great  year  of  the  Hellenes. 
When  the  god  makes  his  periodical  visit,  he 
both  plays  the  harp  and  dances  during  the  night, 
from  the  vernal  equinox  to  the  rising  of  the 
Pleiades,  taking  great  delight  in  his  own  success- 
ful efforts." 

Hecateus,  who  makes  Britain  the  land  of  the 
Hyperboreans,  may  have  derived  his  knowledge 
from  the  reports  of  Phoenician  merchants.  What 
he  says  is  worthy  of  some  consideration,  what- 
ever we  may  think  of  this  race,  which  is  at  least 

•History,  V,  31. 


298  DEPARTED  OODS. 

semi-fabulous.     Pliny  gives  a  brilliant  account  of. 
this  happy  race.* 

We  quote  several  passages  from  Pliny,  whose 
testimony  is  valuable  as  presenting  truthful  ac- 
counts of  the  beliefs  of  his  time : 

u  The  Druids — for  that  is  the  name  they  give 
to  their  magicians — held  nothing  more  sacred 
than  the  mistletoe  and  the  tree  that  bears  it, 
supposing  always  that  tree  to  be  the  robur.  Of 
itself  the  robur  is  selected  by  them  to  form 
whole  groves,  and  they  perform  none  of  their 
religious  rites  without  employing  branches  of  it; 
so  much  so,  that  it  is  very  probable  that  the 
priests  themselves  may  have  received  their  name 
from  the  Greek  name  for  that  tree.  In  fact,  it 
is  the  notion  with  them  that  everything  that 
grows  on  it  has  been  sent  immediately  from 
heaven,  and  that  the  mistletoe  upon  it  is  a  proof 
that  the  tree  has  been  selected  by  God  himself  as 
an  object  of  his  especial  favor. 

"The  mistletoe,  however,  is  but  rarely  found 
upon  the  robur,  and,  when  found,  is  gathered 
with  rites  replete  with  religious  awe.  This,  is 
done  more  particularly  on  the  fifth  day  of  the 
moon,  the  day  which  is  the  beginning  of  their 
months  and  years,  as  also  of  their  ages,  which, 
with  them,  are  but  thirty  years.     This  day  they 

*  Natural  History,  iv,  26. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.       299 

select  because  the  moon,  though  not  yet  in  the 
middle  of  her  course,  has  already  considerable 
power  and  influence;  and  they  call  her  by  a 
name  which  signifies,  in  their  language,  the  all- 
healing.  Having  made  all  due  preparation  for 
the  sacrifice  and  a  banquet  beneath  trees,  they 
bring  thither  two  white  bulls,  the,  horns  of  which 
are  bound  then  for  the  first  time.  Clad  in  a 
white  robe,  the  priest  ascends  the  tree,  and  cuts 
the  mistletoe  with  a  golden  sickle,  which  is  re- 
ceived by  others  in  a  white  cloak.  They  then 
immolate  the  victims,  offering  up  their  prayer 
that  God  will  render  this  gift  of  his  propitious 
to  those  to  whom  he  has  so  granted  it."* 

Savin  also  is  sacred,  and  must  be  gathered 
with  superstitious  rites.  "  Care  is  taken  to  gather 
it  without  the  use  of  iron,  the  right  hand  being 
passed  for  the  purpose  through  the  left  sleeve  of 
the  tunic,  as  though  the  gatherer  were  in  the  :ict 
of  committing  a  theft.  The  clothing  too  must 
be  white,  the  feet  bare  and  washed  clean,  and 
a  sacrifice  of  bread  and  wine  must  be  made 
before  gathering  it;  it  is  carried  also  in  a  new 
napkin."  The  "  samolus "  must  be  gathered 
fasting  with  the  left  hand,  the  person  who  gath- 
ers it  being  careful  not  to  look  behind.  If  these 
superstitions    belong    to    the    Druids,   they   are 

•Natural  History,  xvi,  95. 


300  DEPARTED  OODS. 

not  unlike  multitudes  of  others  related  by 
Pliny.  * 

An  egg,  said  to  be  of  peculiar  formation,  is 
held  in  great  repute  among  the  Druids. 

"  In  summer-time,  numberless  snakes  become 
artificially  entwined  together,  and  form  rings 
around  their  bodies  with  the  viscous  slime  which 
exudes  from  their  mouths,  and  with  the  foam  se- 
creted by  them ;  the  name  given  to  this  sub- 
stance is  '  anguinem.'  The  Druids  tell  us  that 
the  serpents  eject  these  eggs  into  the  air  by  their 
hissing,  and  that  a  person  must  be  ready  to  catch 
them  in  a  cloak,  so  as  not  to  let  them  touch  the 
ground.  They  say  also  that  he  must  instantly 
take  to  flight  on  horseback,  as  the  serpents  will 
be  sure  to  pursue  him  until  some  intervening 
river  has  placed  a  barrier  between  them.  The 
test  of  its  genuineness,  they  say,  is  its  floating 
against  the  current  of  a  stream,  even  though  it 
be  set  in  gold.  But  as  it  is  the  way  with  ma- 
gicians to  be  dexterous  and  cunning  in  casting  a 
veil  about  their  frauds,  they  pretend  that  these 
eggs  can  only  be  taken  on  a  certain  day  of  the 
moon;  as  though,  forsooth,  it  depended  entirely 
upon  the  human  will  to  make  the  moon  and  the 
serpents  accord  as  to  the  moment  of  this  oper- 
ation. 


1  Natural  History,  xxiv,  62,  63. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.       301 

"  I  myself,  however,  have  seen  one  of  these 
eggs ;  it  was  round,  and  about  as  large  as  an  ap- 
ple of  moderate  size ;  the  shell  of  it  was  formed 
of  a  cartilaginous  substance,  and  it  was  sur- 
rounded with  numerous  cupules,  as  it  were,  re- 
sembling those  upon  the  arms  of  the  polypus."  * 

The  Annals  of  Tacitus  contains  this  account 
of  the  Druids  of  Britain  : 

"  When  Mona,  or  Anglesey,  was  invaded  by 
Suetonius  Paulinus,  there  stood  in  the  distance 
on  the  strand  an  army  in  battle  array,  thick  with 
armed  men.  Women  with  disheveled  hair,  clad 
in  funeral  garments,  like  furies  ran  to  and  fro, 
holding  aloft  flaming  torches.  There  were  Dru- 
ids also,  with  hands  uplifted  to  heaven,  pouring 
forth  terrible  imprecations.  The  soldiers  were 
struck  with  awe  and  terror  at  the  novelty  of  the 
sight;  so  that,  as  if  their  limbs  clung  to  the  ground, 
they  presented  their  unmoved  bodies  to  the 
wounds  which  the  enemy  might  inflict.  When 
the  island  was  taken,  the  religious  groves,  ded- 
icated to  superstition  and  barbarous  rites,  were 
leveled  to  the  ground.  In  their  recesses  the  na- 
tives imbrued  their  altars  with  the  blood  of  the 
prisoners,  and  in  the  entrails  of  men  explored  the 
will  of  the  gods."f 

Ammianus  Marcellinus   says :      "  Throughout 

♦Natural  liicitorv,  xxix,  12.     tTacitus,  Annals,  xiv,  31. 
2ti 


302  DEPARTED  GODS. 

these  provinces,  the  people  gradually  becoming 
civilized,  the  study  of  liberal  accomplishments 
flourished,  having  been  first  introduced  by  the 
Bards,  the  Eubages,  and  the  Druids.  The  Bards 
were  accustomed  to  employ  themselves  in  cele- 
brating the  brave  achievements  of  their  illustri- 
ous men,  in  epic  verse,  accompanied  with  sweet 
airs  on  the  lyre.  The  Eubages  investigated  the 
system  and  sublime  secrets  of  nature,  and  sought 
to  explain  them  to  their  followers.  Between 
these  two  came  the  Druids,  men  of  loftier  gen- 
ius, bound  in  brotherhoods  according  to  the  pre- 
cepts and  example  of  Pythagoras;  and  their 
minds  were  elevated  by  investigations  into  secret 
and  sublime  matters,  and  from  the  contempt 
which  they  entertained  for  human  affairs  they 
pronounced  the  soul  immortal."  * 

Lucan  contains  several  passages  of  interest : 
"  You,  too,  ye  Bards,  who,  as  poets,  hand  down 
in  your  praises  to  remote  ages  spirits  valiant,  and 
cut  off  in  war,  freed  from  alarm,  did  then  pour 
forth  full  many  a  strain  ;  and  you,  Druids,  after 
arms  were  laid  aside,  sought  once  again  your  bar- 
barous ceremonials  and  the  ruthless  usages  of 
your  sacred  rites.  To  you  alone  has  it  been 
granted  to  know  the  gods  and  the  divinities  of 

•  History,  xv,  9. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.      303 

heaven,  or  alone  to  know  that  they  do  not  exi>t. 
In  remote  forests  do  you  inhabit  the  deep  glades. 
On  your  authority  the  shades  seek  not  the  silent 
abodes  of  Erebus,  and  the  pallid  realms  of  Pluto 
in  the  depths  below ;  the  same  spirit  controls 
other  limbs  in  another  world ;  death  is  the  mid 
space  in  a  prolonged  existence,  if  you  sing  what 
is  ascertained  as  truth." 

And  again  :  "  There  was  a  grove,  never  vio- 
lated during  long  ages,  which  with  its  knitted 
branches  shut  in  the  darkened  air  and  the  cold 
shade,  the  rays  of  the  sun  being  far  removed. 
This  no  rustic  Pans  and  Fauns  and  Nymphs,  all- 
powerful  in  the  groves,  possessed,  but  sacred 
rites  of  the  gods  barbarous  in  their  ceremonial, 
and  elevations  crowned  with  ruthless  altars ;  and 
every  tree  was  stained  with  human  gore.  If  at 
all,  antiquity,  struck  with  awe  at  the  gods  of 
heaven,  has  been  deserving  of  belief,  upon  these 
branches,  too,  the  birds  of  the  air  dread  to  perch, 
and  the  wild  beasts  to  lie  in  the  caves ;  nor  does 
any  wind  blow  upon»those  groves,  and  lightnings 
hurled  from  the  dense  clouds  ;  a  shuddering  in 
themselves  prevails  among  the  trees  that  spread 
forth  their  branches  to  no  breezes.  Besides,  from 
black  springs  plenteous  water  falls,  and  the  sad- 
dened images  of  the  gods  are  devoid  of  art,  and 


304  DEPARTED  OODS. 

stand  unsightly,  formed  from  hewn  trunks.  The 
very  moldiness  and  paleness  of  the  rotting  wood 
now  renders  people  stricken  with  awe;  not  thus  do 
they  dread  the  deities  consecrated  with  ordinary 
forms;  so  much  does  it  add  to  the  terror  not  to 
know  what  gods  they  are  in  dread  of.  Fame, 
too,  reported  that  full  oft  the  hollow  caverns 
roared  amid  the  earthquake,  and  that  yews  that 
had  fallen  rose  again,  and  that  flames  shone  from 
a  grove  that  did  not  burn,  and  that  serpents  em- 
bracing the  oaks  entwined  around  them.  The 
people  throng  that  place  with  no  approaching 
worship,  but  have  left  it  to  the  gods.  When 
Phoebus  is  in  the  mid-sky,  or  dark  night  pos- 
sesses the  heavens,  the  priest  himself  dreads  the 
approach,  and  is  afraid  to  meet  with,  the  guar- 
dian of  the  grove."  * 

This  author  even  mentions  the  Celtic  names 
of  certain  deities :  "  The  relentless  Teutates," 
"  appeased  by  direful  bloodshed ;"  "  Hesus, 
dreadful  with  his  merciless  altars ;"  and  the 
shrine  of  Taranis,  not  more  human  than  that  of 
Scythian  Diana."  f 

Diogenes  Laertius  calls  the  Druids  philoso- 
phers, and  compares  them  with  the  Magi  among 
the  Persians,   the    Chaldsei  among  the   Babylo- 


Tharsalia,  pp.  29,  30,  112,  113.        Tib.,  p.  29. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  ISXCRIPTIOSS.      305 

nians    and  Assyrians,   and    the    Gymnosophista? 
among  the  Indians.* 

There  are  several  other  classical  allusions, 
but  they  afford  little  new  information.  Pompo- 
nius  Mela  says  that  the  Druids  are  eloquent  in 
speech  and  masters  of  wisdom,  and  teach  that 
men  should  be  brave,  especially  in  war.  Accord- 
ing- to  this  authority,  the  business  accounts  of 
men  are  sent  with  them  to  the  other  world  for 
inspection  and  settlement.  Some  immolate  them- 
selves on  the  funeral  pyres  of  their  friends,  that 
they  may  accompany  them  to  the  world  of  spirits. 
Quintus,  the  brother  of  Cicero,  was  intimately 
acquainted  with  Divitiacus  the  Druid,  an  ^Eduan, 
who  professed  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  sys- 
tem of  nature,  and  foretold  future  events.  Lam- 
pridius  and  Vopiscus  make  mention  pf  prophetic 
women,  one  of  whom  is  said  to  have  foretold  the 
death  of  Diocletian. 

Scholars  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  etymology 
of  the  name  Druid.  Druidh  is  still  used  in 
Gaelic  for  "  wise  men,"  and  druithnich,  or  drui, 
for  "  servants  of  truth."  Menage,  derives  the 
word  from  drus,  u  a  magician ;"  and  according  to 
Keysler  draoi  means  "a  magician,  an  enchanter." 
The  Abbe  Pierre  de  Chiniac  derives  from  de, 
"god"  and  rouyd,  "speaking;"  hence  the  word 

The  Lives  and  Opinions  of  Eminent  Philosophers,  i,  1. 


306  DEPARTED  GODS. 

would  mean  "  speaking  of  God."  The  ancient 
Highlanders  called  the  tiller  of  the  soil  "drao- 
naich,"  which  is  thought  to  be  a  genuine  name  of 
the  Picts.  In  Ireland  draoneach  means  "  an 
artist."*  The  common  derivation  is  from  the 
Greek  fy>5?,  "an  oak;"  Welsh,  derw ;  Armorican, 
dero,  derv;  Cornish,  dar;  Gaelic,  darach.f  John 
Rhys,  our  latest  and  greatest  authority,  agrees 
with  Pliny  in  deriving  the  word  from  the  Greek, 
and  refers  to  Drunemeton,  the  sacred  oak  grove, 
where  Strabo  says  the  Galatians  were  wont  to 
assemble. J 

From  our  classic  quotations  we  may  also 
learn  that  the  religion  of  the  Druids  was  so  far 
developed  as  to  provide  for  an  order  of  priest- 
hood presided  over  by  an  Arch-Druid.  The 
priests  were  learned,  influential,  and  privileged, 
and  were  judges  in  most  important  public  and 
private  cases.  They  were  devoted  to  the  acqui- 
sition and  dissemination  of  learning.  Their  mys- 
teries were  unwritten,  and  were  transmitted  bv 
memory  alone.  They  offered  sacrifices — some- 
times human  sacrifices — in  a  sacred  shrine. 
They  prophesied  concerning  the  future.  They 
believed  in  the  immortality  and  the  transmigra- 


*  Logan,  Scottish  Gael,  pp.  448,  295,  296. 
tZeuss,  Grammatics  Celtica,  Vol.  I,  p.  7. 
J  Rhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.- 221,  222. 


THE  CLASSICS  AXD  THE  INSCRIPT10N&      801 

tion  of  souls.  They  recognized  responsibility 
and  sin,  and  trusted  in  the  efficacy  of  sacrifices, 
prayers,  and  religious  rites.  They  worshiped 
various  gods,  which  the  classic  writers  have 
identified  with  Roman  gods.  The  mysteries  of 
their  religion  are  revealed  only  to  the  initiated. 

The  mysteries  served  several  purposes.  Im- 
portant rites,  symbols,  and  doctrines  were  most 
thoroughly  learned,  and  their  value  most  forcibly 
expressed  and  impressed  upon  the  mind.  The 
memory  was  greatly  strengthened.  A  charm 
was  thrown  about  religious  exercises  at  once  fas- 
cinating to  the  initiated  and  inviting  to  the  un- 
initiated. The  laity  reverenced  and  feared  the 
holy  orders,  and  considered  the  priests  the  special 
favorites  of  the  gods,  and  the  divinely  appointed 
means  of  communicating  with  heaven.  It  was 
considered  unsafe  to  commit  the  highest  relig- 
ious truths  to  the  unlearned  and  the  unworthy. 
They  could  not  understand  them ;  they  could 
not  appreciate  them.  It  were  better  for  them  to 
follow  blindly  the  teachings  of  the  priestly  class. 
We  may  compare  this  system  with  the  Eleu- 
sinian  and  the  Samothracian  mysteries. 

The  transmigration  of  souls  has  its  root  in 
the  belief  in  immortality.  Therein  is  also  rec- 
ognized the  unity  of  life.  Life  in  its  essence  is 
the  same,  whatever  may  be  its  transient  habita- 


308  DEPARTED  GODS. 

tion.  This  lays  the  foundation  of  Pantheism. 
All  life  is  a  part  of  The  Life.  In  this  doctrine 
is  also  recognized  moral  desert.  The  differences 
which  exist  between  individuals  in  the  present 
life  are  the  result  of  the  earnings  of  previous 
lives.  There  are  in  this  world  unfitness  and 
imperfection.  Life  is  not  what  it  ought  to  be — 
not  what  it  must  be  before  there  can  be  rest. 
Hence  there  are  numerous  lives  in  numerous 
bodies  till  there  result  fitness,  perfection,  and 
purity.  We  may  compare  the  same  doctrine  as 
developed  in  Hinduism. 

The  reasonableness  of  sacrifice — and,  indeed, 
of  human  sacrifice — must  have  been  very  obvi- 
ous to  primitive  races,  so  widely  did  the  custom 
extend  in  all  lands.  It  is  founded  in  this  same 
principle  of  the  unity  of  life,  or,  at  le^st,  in  the 
unity  of  the  source  of  life.  All  life  is  either  of 
God  in  its  essence,  or  is  derived  from  him,  and 
hence  to  him  belongs.  There  is  some  portion 
of  divine  life  in  everything  visible — the  largest 
portion  in  man.  In  sacrifice  there  is  given  back 
to  God  what  is  his  own.  The  dearest  possession, 
the  most  valuable  sacrifice,  is  most  acceptable  to 
him  as  containing  the  most  of  his  own  divinity, 
and  as  carrying  to  him  the  most  of  the  heart  of 
the  worshiper.  Hence  human  sacrifices.  Then, 
too,  the  gods  must  be  propitiated,  that  they  may 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.      309 

deal  mercifully  with  the  unworthy  and  the  trans- 
gressor. Life  alone  can  atone  for  sin — life  alone 
can  ransom  life.  The  human  life  offered  to  the 
gods  was  not  destroyed ;  it  was  saved  ;  it  went 
to  the  gods.  The  victim,  in  being  sacrificed, 
was  sanctified,  and  became  spotless  and  pure. 

Christ  is  the  world's  one  great  sacrifice — the 
life  given  for  life.  And  now  acceptable  sacrifice 
is  a  broken  heart  and  a  contrite  spirit,  which 
God  will  not  despise. 

The  plentiful  harvest  corresponding  to  abun- 
dance of  murders  can  not  be  explained,  unless  the 
killing  be  considered  as  sacrificing  to  the  gods 
in  some  sense,  and  hence  a  religious  act. 

The  unroofing  and  re-roofing  of  the  temple  of 
the  Bacchantes  may  have  some  reference  to  sun- 
worship. 

In  the  ascribing  of  occult  powers  to  certain 
objects,  the  Druids  recognized  the  presence  of  in- 
visible forces,  and  an  invisible  spiritual  realm. 
They  also  seemed  to  recognize  the  basal  unity 
of  force  and  law.  Such  occult  powers  were  not 
always  necessary  to  the  existence  of  the  object, 
for  they  might  be  lost  if  the  priest  were  not 
careful  in  the  observance  of  mystic  ceremonies. 
Sometimes  such  powers  were  invited  by  prayers 
and    invocations  to  make   certain   objects   their 

home.    Each  object  seemed  to  possess  a  spiritual 

27 


310  DEPARTED  GODS. 

part.  They  sought  to  secure  the  friendship  of 
these  invisible  powers,  and  to  use  them  against 
their  enemies,  or  to  secure  good  fortune,  or  again 
to  drive  away  disease.  There  might  result  fe- 
tishism; there  might  result  magic.  The  associ- 
ation of  ideas  may  be  the  key  to  the  under- 
standing of  occult  science.  "  Man,  as  yet  in  a 
low  intellectual  condition,  having  come  to  associ- 
ate in  thought  those  things  which  he  found  in 
experience  to  be  connected  in  fact,  proceeded  er- 
roneously to  invert  this  action,  and  to  conclude 
that  association  in  thought  must  involve  similar 
connection  in  reality."  * 

The  reasoning  was  not  wholly  erroneous. 
There  is  some  connection  between  all  existences — 
a  connection  which  has  its  basis  in  the  Supreme 
Mind;  but  it  is  not  such  a  connection  as  magic 
demands.  The  Druids  believed  in  the  power  of 
invocations,  imprecations,  incantations,  and 
charms.  Thus  to  will  was  to  accomplish.  The 
will  is  the  supreme  of  man.  Mind  is  the  mon- 
arch of  matter.  Invisible  agents  go  at  the  com- 
mand of  will.  Words  themselves  are  deified  as 
possessing  inherent  and  wonderful  powers. 
Thus  starting  from  what  is  true,  the  end  is 
false. 

There  easily  results  divination   or  prophecy. 

*Tylor,  Primitive  Culture,  Vol.  It  p.  116. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.        311 

If  the  world  and  the  creator  he  the  same,  or  if 
the  world  be  ruled  by  stern  mechanical  law,  then 
could  one  particle  of  matter,  or  one  action  or  at- 
tribute of  mind,  at  any  moment  be  perfectly 
known,  all — past,  present,  and  future — would  be 
known.  The  future  would  be  revealed  to  the 
man  who  could  read  aright.  Again,  the  spirit 
which  controls  an  animal,  living  or  dying,  may 
know  the  future  and  make  it  known  to  man.  In 
either  case  there  is  an  underlying  unity  of  law. 
Man  is  connected  with  all  existences.  In  recog- 
nition of  the  continuance  of  these  relations  after 
death,  articles  of  ornament  and  usefulness  are 
buried  with  the  dead  that  they  may  not  want  in 
the  next  life. 

The  gods  of  Gaul  were  assimilated  with  the 
gods  of  Rome,  notably  under  the  policy  of  Au- 
gustus. The  result  was  that  the  name  of  the 
Gaulish  god  was  treated  more  or  less  as  a  mere 
epithet  to  that  of  the  Roman  divinity.  "  Nay, 
the  Roman  god  not  unfrequently  seized  on  the 
attributes  of  the  native  one  even  to  the  extent 
of  assuming  his  Gaulish  costume  and  non-classical 
appearance."  Moreover,  the  cult  of  the  Roman 
gods  was  introduced  and  established  all  over  the 
country.  The  Gaulish  divinities,  in  fine,  were 
reduced  in  rank,  but  were  not  banished. 

We  may  identify  in  the  inscriptions  the  Gal- 


312  DEPARTED  GODS. 

lie  gods  which  have  been  assimilated  to  the 
Roman  divinities  which  are  named  in  the 
classics. 

An  inscription  found  near  Beaucroissant,  at  a 
place  which  was  once  called  Artay,  contains 
the  name  of  the  god  Mercurius  Artaius,  who 
would  seem  to  have  been  connected  with  agricul- 
ture, and  especially  with  plowing.  Another  in- 
scription found  at  Hieres  would  connect  this  di- 
vinity with  war  or  kingship.  He  had  temples, 
most  of  which  belonged  to  the  god  in  his  native 
character,  in  no  less  than  twenty-six  places  in 
the  territory  of  the  Allobroges  alone.  Many 
names  of  places  prove  the  wide  extent  of  the 
worship  of  Mercury.  He  affected  high  places, 
for  his  temples  were  frequently  situated  in  con- 
spicuous positions.  The  Greek  artist  Zenodorus 
made  a  colossal  Mercury  for  the  great  temple 
of  the  Arverni  on  Puy  de  Dome.  It  was  one 
hundred  and  twenty  feet  high,  and  was  the 
work  of  ten  years.  * 

This  god  is  also  the  discoverer  of  roads  and 
paths. 

Ogmios  was  one  of  his  principal  Gallic  names. 
Rhys  quotes  from  Lucian  as  follows  : 

"  The  Celts,  he  says,  call  Heracles  in  the  lan- 
guage of  their  country  Ogmios,  and  they  make 

*  Pliny,  xxxiv,  18. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.       MS 

very  strange  representations  of  the  god.  With 
them  he  is  an  extremely  old  man,  with  a  bald 
forehead  and  his  few  remaining  hairs  quite  gray; 
his  skin  is  wrinkled  and  embrowned  by  the  sun 
to  that  degree  of  swarthiness  which  is  character- 
istic of  men  who  have  grown  old  in  a  seafaring 
life ;  in  fact,  you  would  fancy  him  rather  to  be  a 
Charon  or  Japetus,  one  of  the  dwellers  in  Tar- 
tarus, or  anybody  rather  than  Heracles.  But  al- 
though he  is  of  this  description,  he  is,  neverthe- 
less, attired  like  Heracles,  for  he  has  on  him  the 
lions  skin,  and  he  has  a  club  in  his  right  hand  ; 
he  is  duly  equipped  with  a  quiver,  and  his  left 
hand  displays  a  bow  stretched  out ;  in  these  re- 
spects he  is  quite  Heracles.  It  struck  me,  then, 
that  the  Celts  took  such  liberties  with  the  appear- 
ance of  Heracles  in  order  to  insult  the  gods  of 
the  Greeks  and  avenge  themselves  on  him  in  their 
painting,  because  he  once  made  a  raid  on  their 
territory,  when  in  search  of  the  herds  of  Geryon 
he  harassed  most  of  the  western  people.  I  have 
not  yet,  however,  mentioned  the  most  whimsical 
part  of  the  picture;  for  this  old  man  Heracles 
draws  after  him  a  great  number  of  men  bound  by 
their  ears,  and  the  bonds  are  slender  cords  wrought 
of  gold  and  amber,  like  necklaces  of  the  most 
beautiful  make;  and  although  they  are  dragged 
on   by  such  weak   ties,  they  never   try  to  run 


314  DEPARTED  GODS. 

away,  though  they  could  easily  do  it;  nor  do  they 
at  all  resist  or  struggle  against  them,  planting 
their  feet  on  the  ground  and  throwing  their  weight 
back  in  the  direction  contrary  to  that  in  which 
they  are  being  led.  Quite  the  reverse ;  they  fol- 
low with  joyful  countenance  in  a  merry  mood, 
and  praising  him  who  leads  them,  pressing  on  one 
and  all,  and  slackening  their  chains  in  their  eager- 
ness to  proceed  ;  in  fact,  they  look  like  men  who 
would  be  grieved  should  they  be  set  free.  But 
that  which  seemed  to  me  the  most  absurd  thing 
of  all  I  will  not  hesitate  also  to  tell  you;  the 
painter,  you  see,  had  nowhere  to  fix  the  ends  of 
the  cords,  since  the  right  hand  of  the  god  held 
the  club  and  his  left  the  bow;  so  he  pierced  the 
tip  of  his  tongue,  and  represented  the  people  as 
drawn  on  from  it,  and  the  god  turns  a  smiling 
countenance  towards  those  whom  he  is  leading. 
Now  I  stood  a  long  time  looking  at  these  things, 
and  wondered,  perplexed  and  indignant.  But  a 
certain  Celt  standing  by,  who  knew  something 
about  our  ways,  as  he  showed  by  speaking  good 
Greek — a  man  who  was  quite  a  philosopher,  I 
take  it,  in  local  matters — said  to  me,  Stranger,  I 
will  tell  you  the  secret  of  the  painting,  for  you 
seem  very  much  troubled  about  it.  We  Celts  do 
not  consider  the  power  of  speech  to  be  Hermes, 
as  you  Greeks  do,  but  we  represent  it  by  means 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.^      315 

of  Heracles,  because  he  is  much  stronger  than 
Hermes.  Nor  should  you  wonder  at  his  being 
represented  as  an  old  man,  for  the  power  of  words 
is  wont  to  show  its  perfection  in  the  aged  ;  for 
your  poets  are  no  doubt  right  when  they  say  that 
the  thoughts  of  young  men  turn  with  every 
wind,  and  that  age  has  something  wiser  to  tell  us 
than  youth.  And  so  it  is  that  honey  pours  from 
the  tongue  of  that  Nestor  of  yours,  and  the  Tro- 
jan orators  speak  with  a  voice  of  the  delicacy  of 
the  lily,  a  voice  well  covered,  so  to  say,  with 
bloom ;  for  the  bloom  of  flowers,  if  my  memory 
does  not  fail  me,  has  the  term  lilies  applied  to 
it.  So  if  this  old  man  Heracles,  the  power  of 
speech,  draws  men  after  him,  tied  to  his  tongue 
by  their  ears,  you  have  no  reason  to  wonder,  as 
ydu  must  be  aware  of  the  close  connection  be- 
tween the  ears  and  the  tongue.  Nor  is  there 
any  injury  done  him  by  this  latter  being  pierced; 
for  I  remember,  said  he,  learning  while  among 
you  some  comic  iambics  to  the  effect  that  all  chat- 
tering fellows  have  the  tongue  bored  at  the  tip. 
In  a  word,  we  Celts  are  of  opinion  that  Her- 
acles himself  performed  everything  by  the  power 
of  words,  as  he  was  a  wise  fellow,  and  that  most 
of  his  compulsion  was  effected  by  persuasion. 
His  weapons,  I  take  it,  are  his  utterances,  which 
are   sharp  and  well-aimed,   swift   to    pierce  the 


316  DEPARTED  OODS. 

mind;  and  you  too  say  that  words  have  wings. 
Thus  far  the  Celt."  * 

The  word  Ogmios  is  found  in  the  Celtic  lan- 
guages in  several  forms.  Ogma  is  an  Irish  god, 
skilled  in  dialects  and  poetry.  He  it  was  who 
invented  the  Ogam  mode  of  writing. 

The  most  important  Gallic  appellations  of 
Apollo  were  Maponos,  Grannus,  and  Toutiorix. 
Three  inscriptions  of  Apollo  Maponos  have  heen 
discovered  in  the  north  of  England.  In  Dacia 
we  meet  with  Bonus  Puer  Phosphorus, "  the  light- 
bringing  good  boy" — the  Old  Welsh  mapon 
means  "boy."  The  Apollo  Grannus  Magounus, 
found  near  Horburg,  has  the  same  meaning.  In 
the  districts  inhabited  by  Belgic  tribes  we  meet 
with  Apollo  Grannus — the  youthful  god.  Apollo 
was  the  god  of  healing,  and  affected  places  cele- 
brated for  warm  springs  possessed  of  medicinal 
virtues.  Dion  Cassius  tells  us  that  Grannus  was 
invoked  by  Caracalla  as  the  equal  of  .^Esculapius 
and  Serapis. 

The  god  and  goddess  Bormanus  and  Bor- 
mana — found  also  in  other  forms — may  be  con- 
nected with  this  Apollo. 

There  was  a  female  divinity  associated  with 
Apollo,  concerning  whom  something  must  be  said. 
Her   name   is    Sirona,  and  she  is  represented  in 

*Rhys,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  14-16. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.      317 

bas-relief  on  a  monument  which  is  preserved  in 
the  Museum  of  Munich.  She  is  clothed  in  a 
long  dress,  and  resembles  in  general  appearance 
the  Gaulish  divinities  called  mothers  or  matrons. 
With  her  right  hand  she  holds  up  ears  of  corn, 
and  in  her  left  she  has  a  bunch  of  fruit.  On 
another  face  of  the  monument  is  represented 
Apollo  Grannus.  In  his  right  hand  he  holds 
something  like  a  plectrum,  and  in  his  left  a  very 
large  lyre.  It  is  not  possible  to  determine  what 
relation  these  divinities  sustain  to  each  other. 
We  might  take  Sirona  to  be  the  wife  of  Apollo 
Grannus,  but  there  is  absolutely  nothing  to  sug- 
gest their  relation.  Rhys  thinks  that  the  names 
Maponos  and  Magounus  render  such  a  supposi- 
tion inadmissible.  He  suggests  that  she  may 
have  been  regarded  as  his  mother.  There  are 
monuments  in  honor  of  herself  alone,  showing 
that  she  maintained  an  independent  position. 
One  of  these  monuments,  with  her  bust  in  bas- 
relief,  gives  her  the  appearance  of  extreme 
old  age.* 

The  third  epithet  of  the  god  is  Toutiorix, 
which  can  mean  nothing  else  than  "king  of  the 
people" — a  name  connected  at  several  points 
with  German  mythology  and  history. 

Mars  is  the  third  god  which  Caesar  mentions. 

*RhyB,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  p.  27. 


318  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Among  his  epithets  we  find  most  prominently 
named  Caturix,  which  may  be  interpreted  "king 
of  war — lord  of  battles."  As  Mars  Vintius  he 
was  god  of  the  winds,  but  as  god  of  the  propi- 
tious winds  he  was  assimilated  with  Pollux. 
He  had  many  temples  and  altars  along  the 
Rhone.  As  Mars  Camulos  he  was  the  god  of 
the  sky  and  of  heaven,  and  corresponded  with 
the  Jupiter  of  the  Latins.  Many  epithets  prove 
him  to  have  been  the  chief  of  the  Celtic  gods. 
He  was  "most  kingly,"  and  "king  of  the  uni- 
verse," and  his  associate — as  on  a  monument  at 
Bath — was  called  Nemetona;  and  Nemon,  ac- 
cording to  Irish  tradition,  was  the  wife  of  Net, 
the  war-god.  Lucan  speaks  of  the  bloody  rites 
of  Teutates,  Hesus,  and  Taranis,  and  describes  a 
consecrated  grove  near  Marseilles : 

"An  old,  inviolated,  sacred  wood, 
Whose  gloomy  boughs,  thick  interwoven,  made 
A  chilly,  cheerless,  everlasting  shade." 

This  Teutates  is  found  in  an  inscription  in  the 
form  Toutates.  According  to  Caesar,  the  Gauls, 
before  engaging  in  battle,  vowed  to  Mars  the 
spoils  of  war,  and  presented  in  sacred  places  all 
the  remainder  of  the  booty,  and  few  had  the 
temerity  to  withhold  any  part  of  the  spoils,  so 
severe  was  the  penalty  inflicted. 

There  are   in  the  inscriptions   Jupiter  Bagin- 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.      319 

ates  and  Jupiter  Sucellus,  but  we  know  not  the 
meanings  of  these  appellations.  We  have  also 
.Jupiter  Taranus,  "the  thunderer,"  with  whom 
we  may  compare  the  Norse  Thor.  Rhys  makes 
Taranis- remark  the  god  of  Lucan — and  the 
Irish  Toranis  feminine. 

The  Hesus  of  Lucan  is  found  as  Esus,  ami 
in  etymology,  if  not  mythological  bearing  also, 
is  connected  with  the  older  class  of  Norse  divin- 
ities. Consulting  the  meaning  of  the  root,  and 
we  will  have  "lord,  the  living  one." 

"Now  where  the  name  Esus  occurs,  it  stands 
written  over  a  figure  of  the  god,  which  has  been 
carefully  studied  by  a  distinguished  French  arch- 
aeologist, M.  Robt.  Mowat.  He  describes  the 
bas-relief  as  representing  the  god  clad  in  a  short 
tunic,  tucked  round  his  waist  so  as  not  to  im- 
pede the  free  action  of  the  body.  He  brandishes 
a  square,  short-hafted  ax,  with  which  he  is  fell- 
ing or  lopping  a  tree,  the  lance-like  form  of  the 
leaves  of  which  show  it  to  be  a  willow,  such  as 
must  have  grown  in  abundance  on  the  banks  and 
islands  of  the  Seine.  M.  Mowat  classes  this  fig- 
ure with  the  bronze  images  and  bas-reliefs  of 
the  god  known  by  his  Latin  name  as  Silvanus. 
Other  representations  make  him  hold  in  one  hand 
a  branch  which  he  has  just  cut  off  a  tree  with  a 
woodman's  bill,  while  a  great  many  monuments 


320  DEPARTED  GODS. 

give  him  as  his  attributes  a  hammer  and  a  gob- 
let; but  in  some  instances  the  goblet  is  absent, 
while  in  others  the  hammer  has  smaller  ham- 
mers growing  as  it  were  out  of  it  in  tree-like 
fashion — a  remarkable  specimen  of  this  kind  has 
been  discovered  at  Vienne.  The  goblet  and 
hammer  sometimes  accompany  dedications  to  Sil- 
vanus  by  name,  but  the  variations  are  too  numer- 
ous to  be  enumerated.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able is  an  altar  at  Lyons,  which  brings  the 
hammer  and  the  bill-hook  together;  it  shows 
the  god  using  a  bill-hook  with  his  right  hand, 
and  supporting  himself  with  the  other  on  a  ham- 
mer with  a  long  handle,  while  the  goblet  stands 
at  his  feet."  * 

Caesar  ascribes  the  initiation  of  the  various 
trades  and  arts  to  Minerva.  We  find  in  the  in- 
scriptions Minerva  Balisama.  Corresponding  with 
the  character  which  Caesar  ascribes  to  Minerva, 
the  Irish  had  a  goddess  Brigit — poetess  and 
seeress — daughter  of  Dagda  the  Great;  and  she 
had  two  daughters,  also  called  Brigit,  one  the 
patroness  of  the  healing  art,  and  the  other 
of  smith- work.  The  inscriptions  furnish  the 
Gaulish  Brigands  the  probable  counterpart  of 
Brigit. 

An  altar  dug  up  in  Paris  contains  a  figure  of 

*Rhy6,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  64,  65. 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTIONS.      321 

the  god  Cernunnos.  This  may  be  the  god  Dis, 
who,  according  to  Caesar,  was  father  of  the  Gal- 
lic gods.  An  examination  of  the  Paris  altar 
shows  that  this  name  suits  the  god.  There  is 
the  word  Ccmunnus,  and  underneath  this  name  a 
divinity  is  represented.  This  figure  is  bearded 
and  clothed.  The  forehead  is  adorned  with  the 
horns  of  a  stag,  from  each  of  which  hangs  a 
tongue.  Although  the  monument  is  in  a  bad 
state  of  preservation,  the  figure  is  so  large  in 
comparison  with  the  others  of  the  block  as  to 
show  that  the  god  could  not  have  been  repre- 
sented standing  or  even  sitting  on  a  seat.  The 
only  posture  suited  to  the  whole  scene  would 
be  the  cross-legged  position  characteristic  of  the 
Buddha. 

This  connects  the  whole  figure  with  certain 
sculptures  representing  squatting,  horned  divin- 
ities. One  of  these,  found  at  Vendceuvres-en- 
Brenne,  represents  the  god  with  a  follis,  or 
sack,  in  his  lap.  On  either  side  of  the  god 
stand  two  genii  of  diminutive  size.  Their  feet 
rest  upon  the  coils  of  a  serpent.  Each  grasps 
one  of  the  horns  of  the  central  god.  With  the 
other  hand  one  holds  a  torque  and  the  other 
a  purse. 

An  adjoining  face  of  the  monument  shows  an 
Apollo  Citharcedus.     His  posture   is  that  illus- 


322  DEPARTED  GODS. 

trated  by  his  colossal  statue  at  Entrain,  in  the 
Nievre.  On  the  Rheims  monument  the  horned 
god  is  squatting  on  a  seat  between  Apollo  and 
Mercury,  who  are  standing.  The  left  arm  of 
Cernunnos  rests  on  his  knee,  and  on  this  arm  is 
held  a  bag.  With  his  right  hand  he  helps  to 
pour  from  the  bag  a  profusion  of  acorns  or  beech- 
nuts. An  ox  and  a  stag  are  also  figured,  and 
the  nuts  drop  down  between  them.  On  the  tym- 
panum of  the  pediment,  above  the  head  of  the 
god,  a  rat  has  been  carved.  Since  the  rat  is  an 
animal  which  dwells  underground,  its  representa- 
tion on  the  monument  is  thought  to  have  sig- 
nificance. 

The  block  of  saints  displays  two  groups  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  stone.  In  each  case  the 
squatting  god  holds  in  his  right  hand  a  torque, 
and  in  his  left  a  bag  or  purse.  The  latter  is  sup- 
ported on  his  knee.  The  monument  being  imper- 
fect, the  horns  are  wanting,  yet  the  god  is  prob- 
ably Cernunnos. 

The  goddess  in  the  principal  group,  seated 
near  him,  holds  a  cornucopia,  which  rests  on  her 
left  arm,  while  close  to  her  stands  another  little 
female  divinity.  On"  the  opposite  face  of  the 
block  the  god  squats  on  a  base,  which  has  been 
ornamented  with  two  bucraria.  On  a  base  to 
the   left,   ornamented   with  a  bucraria,  a  naked 


THE  CLASSICS  AND  THE  INSCRIPTmXS.      323 

god  supports  himself  on  a  club.  On  the  right, 
the  base  is  without  ornament.  Thereon  stands 
a  goddess  in  a  long  robe.  The  squatting  atti- 
tude of  the  god  in  all  these  figures  is  character- 
istic. The  same  attitude  has  been  remarked  in 
a  bronze  figure  which  was  discovered  in  Autun, 
and  is  now  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Saint 
Germain ;  also  on  one  side  of  certain  Gaulish 
coins  there  is  a  squatting  figure,  holding  a  torque 
in  the  right  hand.* 

This  deity,  like  Dis  and  Pluto,  was  the  god 
of  the  dead  and  of  the  lower  world,  and  the  lord 
of  riches.  In  some  representations,  Cernunnos 
has  two  other  but  smaller  faces  on  either  side, 
and  sometimes  three  heads.  It  would  seem  to 
have  been  the  custom  of  beginning  each  meal 
with  the  religious  ceremony  of  offering  a  portion 
of  the  food  to  Dis.  He  seems  to  have  had  a 
companion,  whose  Irish  name  was  Danu  or  Donu, 
who  was  the  mother  of  the  gods. 

Gallic  cities  were  dedicated  to  presiding  genii, 
the  names  of  several  of  which  have  been  pre- 
served. The  worship  of  mother  goddesses  was 
widely  extended,  and  affected  especially  by  the 
poor.  They  are  represented  as  three  young 
women,  clad  in  long  robes  and  showing  a  benev- 
olent countenance.     They  are  mostly  in  a  sitting 

•Rhys,  Hibbort  Lectures,  1886,  pp.  78-81. 


324  DEPARTED  GODS. 

posture,  with  fruit  on  their  laps,  and  occasionally 
an  infant  on  their  knees.  An  altar  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Vienne  shows  the  mother  with  a  basket 
of  fruit  on  her  lap,  sitting,  while  her  two  sisters, 
with  long  robes  which  cover  their  heads,  stand 
on  either  side.  A  monument,  found  at  Metz, 
represents  the  three  standing  and  holding  in 
their  hands  fruit  or  flowers.  There  was  also  in 
Gaul  the  similar  worship  of  holy  virgins. 

The  imagination  peopled  Celtic  lands  with  a 
multitude  of  malevolent  spirits,  all  kinds  of  gob- 
lins and  ogresses,  inspiring  terror  in  the  hearts 
of  the  humble  worshipers.  There  is  but  one 
monument  in  recognition  of  these  shadowy  be- 
ings. It  is  found  at  Benwell,  near  Newcastle  on 
Tyne,  and  is,  briefly,  "  To  the  witches  three." 
These  minor  divinities  were  local,  and  included 
the  spirits  of  forests,  streams,  lakes,  springs,  and 
mountains.  Remains  of  this  lower  Celtic  wor- 
ship exist  to-day  in  local  seats,  as  we  shall  learn 
in  the  next  chapter,  while  the  greater  and  more 
noble  gods  are  forgotten. 

The  classic  and  archaeological  remains  har- 
monize with  the  mythology  of  the  Celts  wher- 
ever it  is  possible  for  us  to  make  a  fair  compar- 
ison. Each  assists  to  a  correct  understanding  of 
the  others,  and  yet  the  whole  body  of  informa- 
tion is  far  from  being  what  could  be  wished. 


IV. 

LITTLE  PEOPLE. 

I^HE  fairies  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the 
modern  mythology  of  Ireland.  They  were 
once  angels,  according  to  the  popular  belief,  and 
formed  a  large  part  of  the  original  population  of 
heaven.  When  the  rebellion  headed  by  Satan 
drew  away  from  their  allegiance  multitudes  of 
warlike  spirits,  the  fairies  remained  neutral.  As 
a  punishment  they  were  banished  from  heaven, 
and  condemned  to  dwell  in  the  earth,  yet  cher- 
ishing the  hope  of  final  pardon  and  admission  to 
their  former  celestial  abodes. 

They  dwell  in  large  societies,  labor  on  the  co- 
operative plan,  and  own  property  in  common. 
They  are  well-disposed,  though  capable  of  doing 
much  harm.  "  Though,  be  nacher,  they  're  not 
the  length  av  yer  finger,  they  can  make  thim- 
selves  the  bigness  ava  tower  whenitplazes  thim, 
an',  av  that  ugliness  that  ye  'd  faint  wid  the 
looks  o'  thim,  as  knowin'  they  can  sthrike  ye 
dead  on  the  shpot,  or  change  ye  into  a  dog,  or  a 
pig,  or  a  unicorn,  or  any  other  dirthy  baste  they 
plaze."  Their  bodies  are  quite  ethereal  in  sub- 
stance, so  that  the  light  can  easily  shine  through, 

28  325 


326 


FAIRIES. 


LITTLE  PEOPLE.  327 

and  they  can  render  themselves  visible  or  invis- 
ible at  their  pleasure.  Sometimes  they  can  be 
heard  when  they  can  not  be  seen.  Fairy  maids 
wear  pure  white  robes,  and  their  long  hair  falls 
loosely  over  their  shoulders.  The  matrons  bind 
up  their  hair  in  a  coil  on  their  heads,  and  wear 
a  band  around  their  brow.  Young  gentlemen 
wear  green  jackets,  and  white  breeches  and 
stockings.  The  blossom  of  the  foxglove  makes 
an  ever-ready,  beautiful,  and  appropriate  hat. 
Fairies  make  fine  soldiers,  are  fond  of  military 
exercises,  and  are  divided  into  hostile  clans. 
They  dwell  in  mounds,  old  castles,  graveyards, 
ruined  churches,  glens  in  the  mountains,  caves  in 
the  rocks,  and  springs  and  lakes.  -% 

These  fairies  play  at  ball,  and  are  especially 
fond  of  music  and  dancing.  A  "wise  woman" 
describes  a  dance  which  she  saw :  "  It  was  the 
'cutest  sight  alive.  There  was  a  place  for  thim 
to  shtand  on,  an'  a  wonderful  big  fiddle,  av  the 
size  ye  cud  slape  in  it,  that  was  played  be  a 
monstrous  frog,  an'  two  little  fiddles,  that  two 
kittens  fiddled  on,  an'  two  big  drums,  baten  be 
cats,  an'  two  trumpets,  played  be  fat  pigs.  All 
round  the  fairies  were  dancin'  like  angels,  the 
fireflies  givin'  thim  light  to  see  by,  an'  the  moon- 
bames  shinin'  on  the  lake ;  for  it  was  be  the  shore 
it   was,   an'   if  ye   do  n't   belave   it,    the  glen 's 


328  DEPARTED  GODS. 

still  there,  that  they  call  the  fairy  glen,  to   this 
blessed  day."* 

To  enter  a  house  selected  for  their  frolic,  the 
little  people  send  one  of  their  number  through 
the  key-hole,  who  carries  with  him  a  thread. 
This  is  made  fast  to  some  article  of  furniture 
near  the  floor.  Upon  it,  first  of  all,  steps  the 
piper,  who  plays  with  might  and  main  a  lively 
air,  and  one  by  one  the  whole  fairy  company 
mount  the  bridge  and  pass  into  the  room.  This 
account  from  Ulster  can  refer  only  to  beings  most 
minute. 

-  The  Pooka  is  an  evil  spirit.  "Old  people 
used  to  say  that  the  Pookas  were  very  numerous 
in  the  times  long  ago.  They  were  wicked- 
minded,  black-looking,  bad  things,  that  would 
come  in  the  form  of  wild  colts,  with  chains  hang- 
ing about  them.  They  did  great  harm  to  be- 
nighted travelers." 

The  Leprechauns  are  peculiar  to  Ireland. 
This  being  is  in  the  form  of  a  little  old  man,  and 
is  reputed  to  be  very  rich.  He  may  be  com- 
pelled, if  caught,  to  reveal  the  place  where  he 
has  hidden  his  gold ;  but  you  must  not  take  your 
eyes  off  the  prisoner  for  a  single  instant,  or  he 
will  vanish. 

The  Leprechauns  did  a  great  deal  of  traveling 

*  McAnally,  Irish  Wonders,  p.  99. 


LITTLE  PEOPLE.  329 

over  the  country,  and  their  brogues  often  wore 
out  and  brought  their  feet  to  the  ground. 
When  this  occurred  they  would  sit  down 
and  mend  them  in  the  first  convenient  place. 
They  were  quite  solitary  in  their  habits,  and 
seldom  was  more  than  one  seen  at  the  same 
time. 

The  fairies  of  the  Scottish  Highlands  are  very 
handsome  in  person,  and  are  usually  dressed  iu 
green.  They  enjoy  themselves  in  dancing  and 
singing,  and  make  shoes  and  clothes  in  an  incred- 
ibly short  space  of  time.  They  borrow  from  the 
human  race,  whenever  people  are  kindly  disposed 
toward  them,  and  are  equally  ready  to  lend  from 
their  own  possessions.  But  they  are,  neverthe- 
less, to  be  dreaded ;  for  they  sometimes  carry  off 
women  and  children — especially  those  who  may 
be  remarkable  for  their  beauty — to  their  own 
fairy  abodes.  Here  they  are  treated  with  the 
utmost  kindness,  if  they  are  respectful  and  obe- 
dient. Mortals  who  have  spent  what  seemed 
but  a  night  at  their  fairy  revels,  have  found  the 
next  morning  that  their  night  has  extended  to  a 
hundred  years. 

"One  Highlander,  in  passing  a  mountain, 
hears  the  tramp  of  horses,  the  music  of  the 
horn,  and  the  cheering  of  the  huntsmen, 
when  suddenly  a  gallant  crew  of  thirteen  fairy 


330  DEPARTED  GODS. 

hunters,  dressed  in  green,  sweep  by  him,  the 
silver  bosses  of  their  bridles  jingling  in  the  night 
breeze." 

These  fairies  dwell  in  turrets,  indistin- 
guishable in  the  day,  but  at  night  frequently 
lighted  up  with  great  brilliancy.  The  "hownest" 
Brownies  are  also  found  in  Scotland,  and  the 
Water-kelpie,  in  the  form  of  a  horse,  decoys  the 
unwary  to  mount  him,  and  then  plunges  with 
them  into  the  lake  or  river. 

A  favorite  amusement  of  the  Leprechauns  of 
Ireland  was  to  ride  a  sheep  or  goat,  or  even  a 
dog,  when  they  had  long  journeys  to  make.  But 
the  fairies  of  the  Isle  of  Man  prefer  large  horses, 
which  they  ride  at  utmost  speed,  so  as  sometimes 
to  endanger  their  lives. 

Among  the  fairy  legends  of  Wales  we  select 
one  located  in  the  mountains  near  Brecknock, 
where  there  was  a  lake :  "  In  ancient  times  a 
door  in  a  rock  near  this  lake  was  found  open 
upon  a  certain  day  every  year.  I  think  it  was 
May-day.  Those  who  had  the  curiosity  and 
resolution  to  enter  were  conducted  by  a  secret 
passage,  which  terminated  in  a  small  island  in 
the  center  of  the  lake.  Here  the  visitors  were 
surprised  with  the  prospect  of  a  most  enchanting 
garden,  stored  with  the  choicest  fruits  and  flow- 
ers, and  inhabited  by  the   Tylwyth  Teg,  or  Fair 


LITTLE  PEOP1  !  '  ttl 

Family,  a  kind  of  fairies,  whose  beauty  could  be 
equaled  only  by  the  courtesy  and  affability 
which  they  exhibited  to  those  who  pleased  them. 
They  gathered  fruit  and  flowers  for  each  of  their 
guests,  entertained  them  with  the  most  exquisite 
music,  disclosed  to  them  many  secrets  of  futurity, 
and  invited  them  to  stay  as  long  as  they  should 
find  their  situation  agreeable.  But  the  island 
was  secret,  and  nothing  of  its  produce  must  be 
carried  away.  The  whole  of  this  scene  was  in- 
visible to  those  who  stood  without  the  margin  of 
the  hike.  Onlv  an  indistinct  mass  was  seen  in 
the  middle;  and  it  was  observed  that  no  bird 
would  fly  over  the  water,  and  that  a  soft  strain 
of  music  at  times  breathed  with  rapturous  sweet- 
ness in  the  breeze  of  the  morning."*  On  one 
occasion  a  man  who  visited  this  island  put  a 
flower  in  his  pocket,  and  endeavored  to  carry  it 
away.  But  as  soon  as  he  reached  the  limit  of 
the  hallowed  ground  the  flower  vanished,  and  he 
lost  his  senses.  Since  that  time  the  door  has 
never  been  opened,  and  the  Cymry  have  been 
unfortunate. 

There  are  two  principal  classes  of  fairies  in 
Brittany.  The  Korrigan  have  been  identified 
with  the  nine  virgin  priestesses  of  Mela.  They 
can  assume   any  form   they   please,  move  from 

•Keigbtlt-y,  Kairy  Mythology,  \>.  408. 


332  DEPARTED  GODS. 

place  to  place  with  the  rapidity  of  thought,  cure 
diseases  by  the  aid  of  charms,  aud  predict  the 
future.  They  are  about  two  feet  in  height,  and 
have  long,  flowing  hair.  Their  only  dress  is  a 
long,  white  veil,  which  they  wind  round  their  body. 
They  are  most  beautiful  in  the  evening;  but  by 
daylight  their  eyes  appear  red,  their  hair  white, 
and  their  faces  wrinkled.  They  are  fond  of 
music  and  the  dance,  and  have  excellent  voices. 
They  haunt  springs,  and  may  be  seen  sitting  on 
their  edge  and  combing  their  hair.  "They  are 
said  to  celebrate  there,  every  returning  spring,  a 
great  nocturnal  festival.  On  the  sod,  at  its 
brink,  is  spread  a  table-cloth,  white  as  the  driven 
snow,  covered  with  the  most  delicious  viands. 
In  the  center  is  a  crystal  cup,  which  emits  such 
light  that  there  is  no  need  of  lamps.  At  the  end 
of  the  banquet  a  cup  goes  round  filled  with  a 
liquor,  one  drop  of  which  would  make  one  as  wise 
as  God  himself.  At  the  approach  of  a  mortal  the 
whole  vanishes."  * 

The  Korred  are  dwarfs,  with  shaggy  hair, 
wrinkled  faces,  deep-set  bright  eyes,  cracked 
voices,  hands  like  the  claws  of  a  cat,  and  feet 
like  a  goat.  They  are  skillful  smiths,  and  possess 
vast  wealth. 

"A  number  of  little   men.  not  more  than  a 


!Keightley,  Fairy  Mythology,  pp.  431,  432. 


LITTLE  PEOPLE.  333 

foot  high,  dwell  under  the  castle  of  Morlaix. 
They  live  in  holes  in  the  ground,  whither  they 
may  often  be  seen  going,  and  beating  on  basins. 
They  possess  great  treasures,  which  they  some- 
times bring  out;  and  if  any  one  pass  by  at  the 
time,  allow  him  to  take  one  handful,  but  no 
more.  Should  any  one  attempt  to  fill  his 
pockets,  the  money  vanishes,  and  he  is  instantly 
assailed  by  a  shower  of  boxes  in  the  ear  from  in- 
visible hands."  * 

We  can  consider  none  of  the  beings  of  the 
Celtic  fairy  world  as  essentially  evil,  except, 
perhaps,  the  Pookas.  Though  frequently  mis- 
chievous, and  enjoying  in  full  measure  laughable 
pranks  and  vexatious  jokes,  they  are,  when  well 
treated,  kindly  disposed.  They  are  living  in  this 
world  on  their  good  behavior,  and  commend 
themselves  to  kind  and  charitable  hearts.  But 
so  superior  are  they  to  the  human  race  in  wis- 
dom and  power  that  they  become  most  formidable 
enemies  to  those  who  do  not  respect  their  liberty 
and  other  rights. 

In  estimating  the  influence  these  fairy  crea- 
tions had  upon  the  religious  faith  of  our  fathers, 
we  must  remember  that  they  did  not  repeat 
their  stories,  as  we  do  now,  as  mere  literary 
curiosities,  affording   indeed  a  weird  and   fasci- 

•Keightley.  Fairy  Mythology,  p.  441. 
29  * 


334  DEPARTED  GODS. 

nating  pleasure,  but  awakening  no  emotions  more 
sacred,  and  stirring  to  no  grave  deeds  in  the 
line  of  virtue  and  duty;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  saw  in  these  airy  forms,  veritable  beings, 
living  and  acting  all  about  them,  with  whom,  in 
spite  of  themselves,  they  held  most  important 
relations,  and  who  were  capable  of  working  in 
this  world  at  least,  if  not  indeed  also  in  the 
world  to  come,  their  bliss  or  woe.  In  some  sec- 
tions, certain  of  the  fairies  have  acquired  a  bad 
name,  possibly,  at  first,  from  some  accidental 
circumstances.  We  can  see  how  that  in  acci- 
dental drowning  primitive  people  might  think 
the  unfortunate  victim  had  been  seized  by  the 
water-spirit. 

"Tweed  said  to  Till, 
'What  gars  ye  rin  sae  still?' 
Till  said  to  Tweed, 
'Though  ye  rin  wi'  speed, 
And  I  rin  slaw, 

Yet,  where  ye  drown  ae  man, 
I  drown  twa.' " 

We  can  not  fail  to  remark  the  close  simi- 
larity between  ancient  and  more  modern  Celtic 
mythologic  beings.  These  fairies  are  but  the 
degenerate  descendants  of  the  gods  and  spirits 
which .  have  occupied  our  attention  in  previous 
chapters — degenerate  in  some  respects,  and  yet 


LITTLE  PEOPLE. 

more  civilized.  The  primitive  religion  became 
mythology,  mythology  became  a  group  of 
legends,  and  legends  ended  in  fairy  tales — so, 
at  le.-ist,  our  leading  school  of  mythologists  mark 
the  steps. 


V. 


2H)i?  BBligion  nf  fljB  Borse, 


337 


I. 

THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORNING. 

THE  religion  of  the  Norse  should  be  of  more 
than  ordinary  interest  to  English-speaking 
people.  It  is  the  religion  of  our  ancient  father- 
land, and  the  faith  which  inspired  our  sturdy  an- 
cestors. It  is  an  important  part  of  the  priceless 
legacy  which  we  have  inherited  from  the  past. 
Although  we  have  forsaken  the  faith  of  our  fa- 
thers for  something  nobler,  purer,  and  more  di- 
vine, yet  it  still  comes  near  to  our  hearts.  Sin- 
cere, earnest,  manly,  brave,  it  commands  our  re- 
spect. Strong,  compact,  concentrated,  it  is  the 
religion  of  true  men.  Picturesque,  bewildering, 
majestic,  gigantic,  it  fascinates  the  imagination. 
Miraculous,  stupendous,  impetuous,  tempestuous, 
sweeping  on  like  a  whirlwind,  it  moves  the  soul. 
It  still  lives,  though  in  survivals  sometimes  ob- 
scure, in  the  many  fireside  tales  current  in  the 
homes  and  around  the  firesides  of  these  newer 
generations. 

The  study  of  this  old  faith,  with  its  poetic 
and  beautiful  myths,  can  not  but  make  us  wiser, 
stronger,  better,  and  happier.  When  we  under- 
stand its  language  and  correct  its  distortions,  we 
shall  find  much  to  admire  and  little  at  which  to 

339 


340  DEPARTED  GODS. 

laugh.     It  will  be  found  to  be  very  genuine  and 
manly  in  its  utterances. 

."  It  is  thought,  the  genuine  thought  of  deep, 
rude,  earnest  minds,  fairly  opened  to  the  things 
about  them,  a  face-to-face  and  heart-to-heart  in- 
spection of  the  things — the  first  characteristic  of 
all  good  thought  in  all  times."  * 

In  Iceland  the  religion  of  the  Germanic  na- 
tions has  been  preserved  in  written  records.  "  In 
that  strange  island — Iceland — burst  up,  the  geol- 
ogists say,  by  fire  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  a 
wild  land  of  barrenness  and  lava ;  swallowed 
many  months  of  the  year  in  black  tempests,  yet 
with  a'  wild  gleaming  beauty  in  summer-time ; 
towering  up  there,  stern  and  grim,  in  the  North 
Ocean;  with  its  snow  jokuls,  roaring  geysers,  sul- 
phur-pools, and  horrid  volcanic  chasms,  like  the 
waste  chaotic  battle-field  of  frost  and  fire — where, 
of  all  places,  we  least  looked  for  a  literature  or 
written  memorials,  the  record  of  these  things 
was  written  down."f 

This  religion  formerly  extended  its  sway  not 
only  over  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark  and  Ice- 
land, but  also  over  much  of  Germany,  England, 
and  France.  It  gave  way  gradually  and  reluc- 
tantly before   Christianity,  the    Lithuanians    re- 


*Carlyle,  Heroes  and  Hero-worship,  p.  18. 
tCarlyle,  Heroes  and  Hero-worship,  pp.  14,  15. 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORNING.      MJ 

maining  pagans,  even  up  to  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Jacob  Grimm  gives  cogent  reasons  for  the  belief 
which  he  holds  that  a  common  religion  formerly 
extended  over  all  these  lands — u  the  undisputed 
and  very  close  affinity  of  speech  between  the 
two  races,  and  the  identity  of  form  in  their  old- 
est poetry;  the  joint  possession  by  all  Teutonic 
tongues  of  many  terms  relating  to  religious  wor- 
ship ;  the  identity  of  mythic  notions  and  nomen- 
clature, which  ever  and  anon  breaks  out;  the 
precisely  similar  way  in  which  the  religious 
mythus  tacks  itself  on  to  the  heroic  legend,  the 
mingling  of  the  mythic  element  with  the  names 
of  plants  and  constellations,  and  the  undeniable 
admixture  of  the  old  religious  doctrine  with  the 
systems  of  law." 

The  prime  mythology  has  been  preserved 
only  in  Iceland.  There  the  people  cherished 
their  native  speech,  sung  the  heroic  deeds  of  their 
fathers,  and  held  in  memory  the  ancient  faith. 
Christianity  swept  away  the  mythologic  lore  of 
other  Germanic  countries,  leaving  only  bizarre 
fragments  difficult  to  unite  into  any  system.  The 
main  features,  however,  of  their  religion  has  been 
preserved  in  the  literary  treasures  of  Iceland. 
The  German  Niebelungen-lied  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Beowulf  are  but  semi-mythological. 


342  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  religion  and  mythology  of  Iceland  have 
been  preserved  in  their  greatest  purity  in  the 
two  Eddas — the  Elder  and  the  Younger.  The 
former  is  written  in  poetry,  the  latter  in  prose. 
Edda  is  said  to  mean  "  great-grandmother,"  and 
refers  to  the  very  ancient  origin  of  the  contents. 
The  myths  of  the  Elder  Edda  were  collected 
from  the  mouths  of  the  people  by  Saemund  the 
Wise,  who  died  in  A.  D.  1133,  at  the  advanced 
age  of  seventy-seven  years.  The  essential  ele- 
ment of  Icelandic  poetry  even  at  the  present  day, 
as  in  this  old  Edda,  is  alliteration. 

The  Younger  Edda  may  be  considered  a  kind 
of  commentary  on  the  older  and  more  important 
work.  It  was  written  by  Snorri  Sturleson,  who 
died  in  A.  D.  1241  at  the  age  of  sixty-three  years. 

Besides  the  works  which  have  been  men- 
tioned, the  student  of  the  Norse  religion  should 
consult  the  many  Icelandic  sagas  and  the  abun- 
dant folklore  of  the  Gothic  race. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the 
distinguished  scholar  and  master  of  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Old  Norse,  Professor  Sophus  Bugge, 
has  put  forth  views  as  to  the  legends  of  gods  and 
heroes  which  powerfully  controvert  the  received 
opinions.  While  he  admits  the  antiquity  and  in- 
digenous character  of  certain  mythical  beings,  he 
holds  that  the  poems  and  sagas  have  been   pro- 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORSIXG.      343 

(Iuced  under  the  influence  of  Christian  literature, 
and  belong  in  their  present  form  to  the  Middle 
Ages.  Whether  this  bold  and  ably-presented 
opinion  will  win  the  acceptance  of  Norse  scholars 
generally  remains  to  be  seen.  It  has  certainly 
started  up  several  interesting  problems  whose 
solutions  will  doubtless  be  forthcoming,  possibly 
in  the  near  future. 

This  religion  recognizes  the  depravity  of  hu- 
man nature  and  the  necessity  of  a  struggle  for 
a  purer  life.  It  teaches  the  virtues  of  courage, 
faith,  independence,  industry,  truthfulness,  fidel- 
ity, caution,  the  desire  for  learning,  devotion  to 
friends,  hospitality,  liberality,  charity,  temper- 
ance, cheerfulness,  modesty,  politeness,  respect 
for  the  aged,  resignation  to  the  will  of  heaven, 
and  contempt  of  death.  It  must  be  conceded 
however,  that  much  both  of  the  teaching  and  of 
the  practice  contradict  the  general  statement 
which  has  been  made.  The  teaching  of  Odin, 
found  in  many  proverbs  and  wise  sayings,  as 
preserved  in  the  Havam.nl,  is  worthy  of  its  origin. 

"  All  door- ways 
Before  going  forward, 
Should  be  looked  to  ; 
For  difficult  it  is  to  know 
Where  foes  may  sit 
Within  a  dwelling. 


344  DEPARTED  GODS. 

A  firmer  friend 
No  man  ever  gets 
Than  great  sagacity. 

A  worse  provision 

On  the  way  he  can  not  carry 

Than  too-much  beer-bibbing; 

So  good  is  not, 

As  it  is  said, 

Beer  for  the  sons  of  men. 

A  garrulous  tongue, 
If  it  be  not  checked, 
Sings  often  to  its  own  harm. 
Speak  sensibly  or  be  silent. 

A  cowardly  man 

Thinks  he  will  ever  live 

If  warfare  he  avoids ; 

But  old  age  will 

Give  him  no  peace, 

Though  spears  may  spare  him. 

A  foolish  man, 

Who  among  people  comes, 

Had  best  be  silent ; 

For  no  one  knows 

That  he  knows  nothing 

Unless  he  talks  too  much. 

He  who  previously  knew  nothing, 

Will  still  know  nothing, 

Talk  he  ever  so  much. 

The  welcome  becomes  unwelcome 
If  he  too  long  continues 
In  another's  house. 

The  mind  only  knows 
What  lies  near  the  heart. 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORNJNO- 

One's  own  house  is  best, 

Small  though  it  be, 

At  home  is  everyone  his  own  master. 

Man  is  the  joy  of  man. 

Moderately  wise 
Should  each  one  be, 
But  never  overwise : 
Of  those  men 
The  lives  are  fairest 
Who  know  much  well 

Seldom  a  sluggish  wolf 

Gets  prey, 

Or  a  sleeping  man  victory. 

Let  one  only  know, 
A  second  may  not; 
If  three,  all  the  world  knows. 

No  man  lacks  everything. 

Cattle  die, 

Kindred  die, 

We  ourselves  also  die  ; 

But  the  fair  fame 

Never  dies 

Of  him  who  has  earned  it. 

Full  storehouses  I  saw 

At  Dives'  sons' ; 

Now  bear  they  the  beggar's  staff. 

Such  are  riches, 

As  is  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  : 

Of  friends  they  are  most  fickle. 

If  thou  knowest  thou  hast  a  friend, 
Whom  thou  well  canst  trust, 


346  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Go  oft  to  visit  him ; 

For  with  brushwood  overgrown 

And  with  high  grass 

Is  the  way  that  no  one  treads. 

No  one  gets  good  from  a  corpse. 

The  tongue  is  the  bane  of  the  head. 

With  thy  friend 
Be  thou  never 
First  to  quarrel. 
Care  gnaws  the  heart, 
If  thou  to  no  one  canst 
Thy  whole  mind  disclose. 

He  is  not  another's  friend 
Who  never  says  as  he  says. 

Rejoiced  at  evil 

Be  thou  never, 

But  let  good  give  thee  pleasure. 

No  one  is  so  good 

That  no  failing  attends  him, 

Nor  so  bad  as  to  be  good  for  nothing. 

At  a  hoary  speaker 

Laugh  thou  never. 

Often  is  good  that  which  the  aged  utter." 

From  such  sources  the  Scandinavian  nations 
drew  the  best  part  of  their  intellectual  life.  A 
great  people  was  educated,  and  such  precepts  as 
these  had  their  share  in  the  work.  It  is  possi- 
ble that  we  owe  as  much  of  our  solidity,  enter- 
prise, and  freedom  to  the  hardy  Norse  as  we  do 
to  the  Celt  or  Roman. 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORS! 

Tacitus,  a  careful  historian,  though  he  v\;i< 
sometimes  greatly  in  error  in  speaking  of  these 
matters,  says  that  "  a  Being,  master  of  the  uni- 
verse, to  whom  all  things  were  submissive  and 
obedient,  was  the  Supreme  God  of  the  Ger- 
mans." This  being  was  called  by  the  general 
name  of  God.  He  was  the  M  author  of  everything 
that  existcth — the  eternal,  the  ancient,  the  living 
and  awful  Being  that  never  changeth."  He  was 
infinite  in  power  and  knowledge,  and  perfect  in 
justice.  He  could  not  be  represented  by  any 
image ;  he  must  not  be  worshiped  in  any  tem- 
ple ;  in  consecrated  groves  and  in  the  gloomy 
solitudes  of  the  deep  forests,  the  pious  served  him 
with  sacrifices  and  prayers,  and  pledged  them- 
selves to  live  pure  lives  and  perform  brave  deeds 
of  mighty  valor.  This — the  All-father — "  He  lives 
from  everlasting  to  everlasting,  rules  over  all  his 
realm,  and  governs  all  things,  great  and  small. 
He  made  heaven  and  earth,  the  air  and  all  things 
in  them.  What  is  most  important,  he  made  man 
and  gave  him  a  spirit,  which  shall  live,  and  never 
perish,  though  the  body  may  turn  to  dust  or  burn 
to  ashes.  All  who  live  a  life  of  virtue  shall 
dwell  with  him  in  Gimle  or  Vingolf.  The  wicked, 
on  the  other  hand,  go  to  Hel,  and  from  her  to 
Nitlheim,  that  is  down  into  the   ninth  world."  * 

•Anderson,  The  Younger  Kdda.  pp.  54,  65. 


348  DEPARTED  GODS. 

We  may  compare  the  account  of  Tacitus,  in 
which  the  picture  is  doubtless  fully  as  fair  as 
more  careful  investigation  would  justify. 

"But  it  was  not  permitted  to  put  to  death, 
nor  to  bind,  and  not  even  to  inflict  blows,  unless 
by  the  authority  of  the  priests — not  in  the  light 
of  a  judicial  sentence,  nor  by  order  of  a  military 
leader,  but  as  by  the  command  of  God,  who, 
they  believed,  was  present  with  those  engaged  in 
battle.  And  effigies  of  animals  and  certain  ban- 
ners, taken  from  their  sacred  groves,  were  borne 
with  them  on  the  field." 

"Nay,  they  even  think  that  there  is  some- 
thing sacred  and  prescient  in  the  female  sex. 
Neither  do  they  reject  their  advice,  nor  neglect 
their  responses,  when  consulted.  We  have  seen 
in  the  reign  of  the  now  deified  Vespasian, 
Veleda,  reverenced  for  a  long  time  as  a  divinity 
by  most  of  her  countrymen.  But  before  her 
time,  Aurinia,  and  many  other  women,  were  held 
in  veneration — not  as  a  mere  sentiment,  nor  as  if 
they  would  make  them  divinities." 

"  Most  especially  among  the  gods  they  wor- 
ship Mercury,  to  whom,  on  stated  days,  they 
deem  it  right  to  offer  human  victims  also  as  sac- 
rifices. They  sacrifice  to  Hercules  and  Mars 
such  animals  as  are  usually  slain  in  honor  of  the 
gods.     Part  of  the  Suevi  sacrifice  also  to  Isis. 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORXIXQ.      349 

We  have  too  little  information  to  enable  us  to 
determine  whence  are  the  origin  and  introduc- 
tion of  this  worship,  unless  the  symbol  itself  of 
the  goddess,  figured  after  the  manner  of  a  Li- 
burnian  galley,  shows  that  the  religion  came  from 
a  foreign  source.  But  they  think  that  it  is  not 
consistent  with  the  greatness  of  celestial  beings 
to  confine  them  within  walls,  or  to  give  them 
any  resemblance  to  the  human  form.  They 
consecrate  groves  and  woodlands,  and  call  by 
the  names  of  different  deities  that  secret  power 
which  they  see  with  the  eye  of  reverential  faith 
alone/' 

"  They  attend  to  auguries,  and  the  art  of  di- 
vining by  lots,  as  much  as  any  people  whatever. 
The  usual  mode  of  taking  lots  is  simple.  They 
cut  into  small  twigs  a  branch  taken  from  a  fruit- 
tree,  and  these,  'distinguished  by  certain  marks, 
they  throw,  without  meditation  and  at  random, 
upon  a  white  garment.  Then,  if  the  lots  are 
consulted  by  public  authority,  the  priest  of  the 
canton — but  if  by  private  citizens,  the  master  of 
the  family — having  prayed  the  gods  and  raising 
his  eyes  to  heaven,  takes  up  three  slips  success- 
ively, and  holding  them  aloft,  interprets  accord- 
ing to  the  markings  before  mentioned.  If  the 
lots  are  unfavorable,  there  is  no  further  consul- 
tation concerning  the  same  matter  on  this  day; 

30 


350  DEPARTED  GODS. 

but  if  the  lots  are  propitious,  to  this  is  added  the 
sanction  of  auspices.  They  are  also  acquainted 
with  that  other  well-known  custom  indeed — to 
consult  the  notes  and  flights  of  birds;  but  it  is 
a  peculiarity  of  this  race  to  receive  also  presages 
and  admonitions  from  horses.  White  studs  are 
maintained  at  public  expense,  in  these  same 
groves  and  sacred  places  which  we  have  before 
mentioned,  and  profaned  by  no  human  labor  and 
harnessed  to  a  sacred  chariot,  the  priest  and 
king,  or  chief  of  the  State,  attend  and  watch  the 
motions  and  neighings.  Greater  faith  is  given 
to  no  other  kind  of  augury,  not  only  among  the 
common  people,  but  also  among  the  nobility  and 
priesthood ;  for  they  consider  themselves  during 
the  ceremony  as  the  ministers  of  the  gods,  and 
the  horses  as  privy  to  their  will.  There  is  also 
another  mode  of  taking  auspices,  by  which  they 
seek  to  ascertain  the  issues  of  important  wars. 
They  seize,  by  any  way  within  their  power,  a 
captive  of  the  nation  with  which  they  are  at 
war,  and  match  him  with  a  chosen  champion  of 
their  own  people — each  provided  with  weapons 
after  the  manner  of  his  country — and  the  victory 
of  this  one  or  that  one  is  received  as  the  sure 
prognostic  of  the  event." 

"  The  Semnones  consider  themselves  the  most 
ancient  and  respectable  of  the  Suevian  nations. 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORNING.       MM 

This  belief  in  their  antiquity  is  strengthened  by 
a  religious  observance.  On  a  stated  day  all  the 
people  of  the  same  descent,  by  their  deputies, 
go  in  procession  into  a  wood,  rendered  sacred 
by  the  auguries  taken  by  their  fathers  and  the 
awe-inspiring  associations  of  former  times,  ami 
by  the  slaughter  of  a  man,  offered  as  a  victim  in 
the  name  of  the  whole  people,  they  celebrate  by 
an  act  of  horror  the  beginning  of  their  barbarous 
religious  service.  There  is  also  another  mark  of 
reverential  homage  connected  with  the  grove. 
No  man,  except  he  be  bound  with  a  chain  as  an 
inferior  being  ami  displaying  in  his  own  person 
of  the  divinity,  is  permitted  to  enter  this  sanc- 
tuary. If,  by  accident,  any  one  has  fallen,  it  is 
not  permitted,  on  any  account,  that  he  should  be 
assisted,  or  that  he  should  rise.  They  must  roll 
themselves  along  the  ground.  The  whole  super- 
stition has  reference  to  this :  It  is  as  though 
from  this  spot  the  race  had  its  origin,  and  here 
God  is  the  Ruler  of  all,  and  all  things  else  are 
subject  and  dependent.  The  fortune  of  the 
Semnones  adds  to  their  weight  and  influence. 
They  dwell  in  a  hundred  cantons,  and  by  their 
vast  extent  of  territory  are  entitled  to  consider 
themselves  as  the  head  of  the  Suevian  na- 
tions." 

Speaking  of  another  group  of  tribes,  Tacitus 


352  DEPARTED  GODS. 

says :  "  There  is  nothing  worthy  of  special  note 
among  these  several  tribes,  unless  it  be  that  they 
worship,  in  common,  Hertha,  or  Mother  Earth, 
and  believe  that  she  takes  part  in  the  affairs  of 
men,  and  that  she  visits  the  different  nations. 
There  is  in  an  island  of  the  ocean  an  unpolluted 
grove,  and  in  this  her  sacred  chariot,  covered  by 
a  vestment,  permitted  to  be  touched  by  her 
priest  alone.  He  becomes  conscious  of  the  en- 
trance of  the  goddess  into  her  sacred  dwelling, 
and  follows  the  chariot  drawn  by  cows  yoked  to- 
gether. Then  there  are  days  of  publi?  rejoicing 
and  general  festivals  in  all  places  which  she 
deems  worthy  of  visiting,  and  which  she  honors 
with  the  privilege  of  her  entertainment.  No 
wars  are  carried  on,  no  arms  assumed,  and  every 
sword  is  sheathed.  Then  peace  and  quiet  are  so 
much  known,  then  so  much  relished,  until  the 
same  priest  returns  the  goddess,  satisfied  with 
her  visitation  among  mortals,  to  her  sanctuary. 
Soon  the  chariot  and  the  vestment  and,  if  we 
may  believe  report,  the  goddess  herself,  are  puri- 
fied in  a  secret  lake.  Slaves  officiate  in  this  ab- 
lution, and  the  same  lake  immediately  swallows 
them  up.  Hence  there  are  superstitious  terror 
and  ignorance  as  to  what  those  sacred  mysteries 
can  be,  which  those  only  see  who  are  doomed 
to  die." 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORNING.      353 

"Among  the  Naharvali  is  shown  a  grove  con- 
nected with  ancient  religious  rites.  The  priest 
presides  in  a  female  dress;  but  they  say  that 
the  gods  worshiped  there  are,  according  to  Ro- 
man interpretation,  Castor  and  Pollux.  Such  are 
the  attributes  assigned  to  their  godhead.  Their 
name  is  Alci.  There  are  no  images,  and  no  traces 
of  foreign  superstition ;  but  they  worship  them  as 
brothers,  as  youths." 

The  /Estyans  worship  the  mother  of  the  gods. 
"As  a  distinctive  mark  of  this  superstition,  they 
wear,  as  amulets,  images  in  the  form  of  wild  boars. 
This,  instead  of  arras  and  all  defense,  keeps  the 
worshiper  of  the  goddess  safe  even  in  the  midst 
of  enemies."* 

The  author  elsewhere  mentions  a  sacred  grove 
and  an  altar  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  god 
Tafnan.  The  name  of  this  deity  is  found  only 
in  this  passage  and  in  one  inscription.  Another 
grove  is  mentioned  which  was  a  sanctuary  of 
Hercules.  The  god  Tuisco  is  found  and  may  be 
the  same  as  the  native  Tyr  or  perhaps  Thor. 
The  latter  has  been  identified  with  Mars,  as  the 
god  Odin  also  with  Mercury.  There  is  mention 
of  the  sacred  forest  of  Baduhenna  and  other 
similar  sanctuaries.  Isis  may  be  the  moon-god- 
dess, ns  Hertha  is  certainly  one  of  the  earth  god- 

*  Tacitus,  CJermania,  vii-x,  xxxix,  xl,  xliii,  xlv. 


354  DEPARTED  GODS. 

desses.  The  worship  of  Castor  and  Pollux  may 
be  compeared  with  that  of  the  earth-mother  as  con- 
ducted by  the  Corybantes,  the  Idiei  Dactyli,  and 
other  priestly  classes,  in  Thrace,  Phrygia,  and 
elsewhere.  The  Germans  hymned  Heracles  in 
song  when  about  to  engage  in  battle,  and  an 
altar  had  been  found  at  Asciburgium  consecrated 
to  Ulysses.  Odin  may  have  reminded  the  Ro- 
mans of  both  the  god  and  the  hero.  * 

The  figures  of  certain  savage  animals  were 
deemed  religious  symbols.  It  was  also  a  custom 
to  deposit  in  their  sacred  groves  the  standards 
taken  from  the  enemy,  which  they  carried  with 
them  in  their  wars.  In  the  battle  between  the 
Catti  and  the  Hermunduri,  both  armies  devoted 
prisoners  and  spoils  of  war  as  a  sacrifice  to  Mars 
and  Mercury.  Mars  would  seem  to  have  been 
reckoned  as  the  chief  deity,  -j- 

Csesar,  contrasting  the  Gfauls  and  Germans, 
says  :  "  The  Germans  differ  greatly  from  this 
custom,  for  they  neither  have  Druids  who  pre- 
side over  sacred  things,  nor  do  they  regard  sac- 
rifices. Of  the  gods  they  acknowledge  none  save 
those  whom  they  can  see  and  by  whose  power 
they  are  apparently  benefited — Sol, Vulcan,  Luna ; 


*  Tacitus,  Gerrnania,  ii.  iii;  Annals,  i,  51 ;  ii,  12;  iv,  73;  His- 
tory, iv,  14. 

t  Tacitus,  History,  iv,  12,  64 ;  Annals,  i,  59 ;  xiii,  57. 


THE  Misrs  QF  THE  WORJJ/B  MORNING      355 

of  the  other   gods  they  know   nothing,  not  even 
by  report."* 

The  method  of  divination  by  means  of  twigs 
is  common  to  several  nations.  The  soothsayers 
of  Scythia  use  willow  wands  for  this  sacred  pur- 
pose. The  Earees  employ  the  inner  bark  of  the 
linden-tree.  "They  take  a  piece  of  this  bark, 
and,  splitting  it  into  three  strips,  keep  twining 
the  strips  about  their  fingers,  and  untwining  them 
while  they  prophesy."  The  Scythians  of  Herod-  ' 
otus  are  held  by  some  authorities  to  belong  to  the 
Aryan  race,  f  The  Alani  divine  by  a  similar 
method.  "  They  collect  a  number  of  straight 
twigs  of  osier;  then,  with  certain  secret  incanta- 
tions, they  separate  them  from  one  another  on 
particular  days ;  and  from  them  they  learn  clearly 
what  is  about  to  happen."  J  This  practice 
among  the  Magi  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  || 
The  people  of  God  were  not  free  from  the  super- 
stition. § 

The  Scordisci,  probably  connected  with  the 
Germanic  race,  sacrificed  their  prisoners  to  Bel- 
lona  and  Mars,  and  drank  with  eagerness  human 
blood  out  of  skulls.  Tf 

•Caesar,  Gallic  War,  vi,  21. 

tRawlinson,  Herodotus,  pp.  46,  47;  158-168. 

X  Aiiinii:mii>  Man-cllinus,  xxxi,  ii,  24. 

kid  viii,  16,  17.         JHosea  iv,  12. 
\  Ammianus  MarcellinuB,  xxvii,  iv,  4. 


356  DEPARTED  GODS. 

But  if,  as  has  been  suggested,  this  religion  had 
an  underlying  basis  of  monotheism,  it  was  soon 
concealed  by  a  rich  polytheism.  The  forces  of 
nature  were  deified.  The  process  is  not  unlike  that 
met  with  elsewhere  again  and  again,  and  need  not 
be  particularly  dwelt  upon  in  this  connection. 
The  Norse  myths,  like  others,  must  be  translated 
in  order  to  be  understood. 

The  myth  of  the  creation  is  worthy  of  careful 
study  and  comparison  with  the  accounts  found 
in  other  religions  and  mythologies.  In  the  be- 
ginning was  a  yawning  gulf  yclept  Ginungagap. 
As  is  said  in  the  Vala's  Prophecy : 

"It  was  Time's  morning, 
When  the  nothing  was; 
Nor  sand,  nor  sea, 
Nor  cooling  billows ; 
Earth  there  was  not, 
Nor  heaven  above. 
The  Ginungagap  was, 
But  grass  nowhere." 

On  the  north  of  Ginungagap  was  a  nebulous 
world  Niflheim,  and  on  the  south  a  fire-world 
Muspelheim.  In  the  middle  of  Niflheim  was  a 
spring  Hvergelmer,  from  which  flowed  twelve  ice- 
cold  streams  called  Elivagar.  Surt  reigned  in 
the  midst  of  the  fierce  heat  of  the  fire-world. 
The  Elivagar  froze  over,  and  ice  was  formed  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  yawning  gulf.     Vapor 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORNING.      357 

which  rose  above  this  ice  became  frost.  The 
heated  blast  from  Muspelheim  thawed  this  rime, 
and  the  drops  were  quickened  into  a  man  or 
giant  called  Ymer,  but  whom  the  frost  giants 
called  Aurgelmer.  While  Ymer  slept,  from  the 
sweat  of  the  pit  of  his  left  arm  were  born  a  man 
and  a  woman,  and  one  foot  begat  with  the  other 
a  six-headed  son,  from  whom  sprang  the  frost 
giants. 

From  the  drops  of  rime  sprang  also  a  cow, 
Audhumbla.  This  cow  licked  salt-rime  stones, 
and  on  the  third  day  these  stones  gave  birth  to 
a  man  named  Bure,  whose  son  was  Bor.  Bor 
married  Bestla,  the  daughter  of  Bolthorn,  and  to 
this  married  pair  were  born  three  sons — Odin, 
Vile,  and  Ve,  the  rulers  of  heaven  and  earth. 

The  three  brothers  now  killed  the  giant  Ymer 

and  his  blood  caused  a  deluge  in  which  all  the 

frost     giants,    save    Bergelmer,   were    drowned. 

The  latter  saved  himself  in  a  boat.     The  giant's 

body   was  thrown    into  Ginungagap.     His  blood 

made  all  waters,  his  flesh  all  lands,  and  his  bones 

all  mountains,  while  his  teeth  and  jaws  became 

stones,  his  hair  forests,  and  his  skull  the  arch  of 

heaven.     His  brains  scattered  in  the  air  became 

clouds,  and  from  his  eyebrows  they  formed  Mid- 

gard  as  a  bulwark  against  the   giants.     Sparks 

from  Muspelheim  were  set  in  the  heavens  to  give 

31 


358  DEPARTED  GODS. 

light  to  the  world.     Says  Grimmer's  Lay  in  the 

Elder  Edda: 

"  Of  Ymer's  flesh 
The  earth  was  made, 
And  of  his  sweat  the  seas ; 
Rocks  of  his  bones, 
Trees  of  his  hair, 
And  the  sky  of  his  skull ; 
But  of  his  eyebrows 
The  blithe  powers 
Made  Midgard  for  the  sons  of  men. 
Of  his  brains 
All  the  melancholy 
Clouds  were  made."* 

Asgard  is  the  divine  abode  in  which  the  gods 
built  a  most  magnificent  golden  palace  called 
Gladsheim,  "home  of  gladness,"  and  for  the 
goddesses  they  built  Vingolf,  "friend's  floor." 
The  three  beneficent  gods  while  walking  on 
the  sea-shore  discovered  two  trees,  an  ash 
and  an  elm,  and  made  from  them  the  first  hu- 
man pair,  and  named  them  from  the  trees  Ask 
and  Embla.  They  also  gave  them  Midgard  for 
their  abode. 

Ida,  situated  in  Asgard,  is  the  assembling 
place  of  the  gods.  From  Hlidskjalf,  Odin  sitting 
on  his  lofty  seat  looks  out  upon  the  whole  world. 
Far  above,  brighter  than  the  highest  splendors 

*The  translations  are  from  Anderson,  Norse  Mythology, 
and  the  Younger  Edda. 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MORXING.      359 

of  the  morning  or  noonday  sun  is  golden  Gitnle, 
most  holy  and  most  pure.  Valhal  is  Odin's  hall, 
:md  here  dwell  the  heroes  who  die  in  battle,  and 
generally  the  brave,  the  good,  and  the  virtuous. 

There  are  twelve  greater  gods — Odin,  Thor, 
Balder,  Tyr,  Brage,  Heimdal,  Hoder,  Vidar,  Vale, 
lller,  Forsete,  and  Loke.  Njord  and  Frey  were 
formerly  sea-gods  or  vans,  but  have  been  adopted 
among  the  Asas.  Of  Vile  and  Ve,  forming  with 
Odin  the  first  trinity  at  the  creation,  we  hear  no 
more.  The  goddesses  which  may,  perhaps,  be 
considered  the  most  important  are  Frigg,  Freyja, 
Nanna,  Sif,  Saga,  Hel,  Gefjun,  Eir,  Hlin,  Lofn, 
Var  and  Snotra.  There  are  also  many  dwarfs, 
elves,  hill-people,  trolls,  hulder,  witches,  nisses, 
necks,  princes,  mermaids,  stromkarls,  fossegrims, 
and  other  classes  of  mythologic  and  fairy  beings. 

An  interpretation  of  the  myths  of  Creation, 
in  their  general  outline,  has  been  suggested.  In 
the  beginning  there  existed  the  Almighty  All- 
father  and  nebulous  matter,  with  various  forces 
and  relations  represented  by  Niflheim,  Muspel- 
heim,  and  Ginungagap.  The  first  step  in  Crea- 
tion resulted  in  Chaos,  or  the  giant  Ymer,  from 
whom  sprung  the  various  forms  of  physical  na- 
ture. The  cow  Audhumbla  represented  spiritual 
life,  and  we  have  successively  Bure  and  Bor,  and 
finally   a    spiritual    trinity,   the    three    brothers, 


360  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Odin,  Vile,  and  Ve,  which,  if  we  may  suppose 
the  Norse  thought  of  the  ethical  import,  we 
may  interpret  as  Spirit,  Will,  and  Holiness. 
After  this  first  creation,  the  places  of  Vile  and 
Ve  in  the  divine  trinity  are  supplied  by  Hcener 
and  Loder. 

When  the  first  human  pair,  Ask  and  Embla, 
were  created,  Odin  breathed  into  their  nostrils 
the  breath  of  life,  Hcener  blessed  them  with 
light  and  understanding,  and  their  warm  blood 
and  the  keenness  of  their  senses  they  owed  to 
the  endowment  of  Loder.  From  Bergelmer  and 
his  wife,  the  giant  and  giantess  who  escaped 
from  the  flood,  were  descended  the  whole  race 
of  the  frost  giants.  They  were  banished  to 
Jotunheim  and  Utgard,  whence  they  visit  Mid- 
gard,  and  seek  to  injure  men.  They  are  repre- 
sented as  dwelling  in  mountains  and  the  desert 
places  of  the  earth,  and  are  the  unconquered 
and  hostile  influences  of  nature.  They  love 
darkness  rather  than  light,  and  are  greatly  terri- 
fied at  the  cheering  light  of  day  and  the  swift 
lightning  of  the  sky.  They  are  said  to  possess 
abundance  of  wealth  and  many  priceless  treas- 
ures. They  are  good  natured  and  boastful,  but 
may  easily  be  moved  to  anger;  frequently  they 
prove  themselves  to  be  powerful,  wise,  and  stern. 
The  bright  gods  wage  war  against  them,  conquer 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WQRUT&  MORNING.      3fil 

them,  and   slay  them — being  ever  victorious  at 
the  last. 

The  ash-tree  Ygdrasil,  beneath  which  the  gods 
assemble  every  day  in  council,  is  one  of  the 
grandest  figures  in  any  mythology.  Its  branches 
spread  over  all  worlds,  and  reach  above  the 
heavens.  Three  roots  sustain  the  tree — one 
reaches  Asgard,  the  home  of  the  gods;  the  sec- 
ond extends  to  the  world  of  the  frost  giants, 
where  Ginungagap  was  formerly  situated;  and 
the  third  reaches  Niflheim.  Under  the  third 
root  is  Hvergelmer,  where  lives  the  hag  Nidhug 
and  gnaws  the  root.  Under  the  second  root  is 
the  well  of  Mimer,  wherein  are  concealed  all 
wisdom  and  all  knowledge.  "The  owner  of  the 
well  hight  Mimer.  He  is  full  of  wisdom,  for 
he  drinks  from  the  well  with  the  Gjallarhorn. 
All-father  once  came  there,  and  asked  for  a  drink, 
but  he  did  not  get  it  before  he  left  one  of  his 
eyes  as  a  pledge."     Thus  says  the  Elder  Edda: 

"Full  well  I  know, 
Great  Odin,  where 
Thine  eye  thou  lost; 
In  Mimer's  well, 
The  fountain  pure, 
Mead  Mimer  drinks 
Each  morning  new, 
With  Odin's  pledge. 
Conceive  ye  this?" 


362  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Beneath  the  root  in  Asgard  is  the  most  sacred 
fountain  of  Urd,  where  the  gods,  riding  over 
Bifrost,  or  the  Rainbow,  every  day,  hold  their 
dooms  tead. 

At  this  fountain,  in  a  beautiful  hall,  dwell 
three  maids — Urd,  Urdande,  and  Skuld,  or  Past, 
Present,  and  Future — called  norns,  fates  that  fix 
the  lifetime  of  men,  the  originals  of  the  weird 
sisters  of  Shakspeare.  These  norns  draw  water 
from  the  fountain,  and  mingling  it  with  clay, 
sprinkle  the  leaves  and  branches  of  the  tree  to 
prevent  withering.  The  water  is  most  holy. 
The  dew  which  falls  from  the  tree  becomes 
honey  for  the  bees.  On  one  of  the  boughs  sits 
a  wise  eagle,  and  between  his  eyes  sits  a  hawk, 
called  Vedfolner.  A  squirrel,  called  Ratatosk, 
runs  up  and  down  the  trunk,  causing  strife  be- 
tween the  eagle  and  Nidhug.  Four  stags  leap 
about  in  the  branches,  and  feed  upon  the  leaves. 
"More  serpents  than  tongue  can  tell"  are  with 
Nidhug. 

This  sacred  tree  symbolizes  all  existences.  It 
carries  life  to  every  part  of  the  universe.  It  is 
the  history  of  the  world. 

"Its  boughs,  with  their  buddings  and  disleaf- 
ings — events,  things  suffered,  things  done,  catas- 
trophes— stretch  through  all  lands  and  times. 
Is  not  every  leaf  of  it  a  biography,  every  fiber 


THE  MISTS  OF  THE  WORLD'S  MO  11  W  IW?,       363 

there  an  act  or  word?  Its  boughs  are  Histories 
of  Nations.  The  rustle  of  it  is  the  noise  of 
Human  Existence,  onwards  from  of  old.  It 
grows  there,  the  breath  of  Human  Passion  rus- 
tling through  it — or  storm-tossed,  the  storm- 
wind  howling  through  it  like  the  voice  of  all 
the  gods.  It  ifl  Jgdrasil,  the  Tree  of  Exist- 
ence. It  is  the  past,  the  present,  and  the  fu- 
ture— what  was  done,  what  is  doing,  what  will 
be  done;  'the  infinite  conjugation  of  the  verb 
To  do.'"* 

Ygdrasil  means  "the  Bearer  of  God."  "The 
picture  is  so  grand  that  nothing  but  an  infinite 
soul  can  comprehend  it ;  no  brush  can  paint  it — 
no  colors  can  represent  it.  Nothing  is  quiet, 
nothing  at  rest — all  is  activity.  It  is  the  whole 
world,  and  can  be  comprehended  only  by  the 
mind  of  man,  by  the  soul  of  the  poet,  and  be 
symbolized  by  the  ceaseless  flow  of  language."  f 

•Carlylc,  Ik-roes  and  Hero- worship,  p.  19. 
t Andersen,  Norse  Mythology,  p.  208. 


II. 

THE  WARRIOR  AND  THE  THUNDERER. 

ODIN  is  the  chief  of  the  gods  of  the  Norse. 
He  is  especially  the  god  of  war,  who 
watches  over  the  brave,  helps  them  in  battle,  and 
receives  them  at  last  in  Valhal.  He  is  the  su- 
preme ruler  of  the  universe,  the  fountain  of  all 
knowledge,  and  the  inventor  of  poetry  and  the 
runes.  Odin  has  twelve  names  in  Asgard — 
forty-nine  names  are  given  in  the  Younger  Edda, 
and  nearly  two  hundred  are  mentioned  in  the 
poets.  He  is  represented  as  a  tall,  old  man, 
with  one  eye,  and  a  long  beard.  He  wears  a 
many-colored  coat  and  a  broad-brimmed  hat,  and 
has  a  spear  in  his  hand  and  a  ring  on  his  finger. 
Two  ravens  sit  on  his  shoulders,  and  two  wolves 
crouch  at  his  feet.  He  sits  upon  his  lofty  throne, 
or,  mounted  on  his  fleet  steed  Sleipner,  rides 
swiftly  as  the  wind. 

Odin  has  been  interpreted  as  the  ever-moving, 
working,  divine  spirit  of  the  universe.  His  hat 
represents  the  vault  of  heaven;  his  coat,  the 
blue  sky ;  and  the  ravens,  Hugin  and  Munin,  are 
reflection  and  memory.  They  fly  over  the  world, 
and  in  the  evening  of  each  day  whisper  in 
Odin's  ear  all  that  they  have    seen   and   heard. 

364 


366  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  marvelous  ring  was  named  Draupner,  and 
was  the  work  of  the  dwarfs.  Eight  rings  of 
equal  weight  drop  from  Draupner  every  ninth 
night.  It  symbolizes  fertility  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life,  and  fertility  of  thought.  Ideas  drop 
one  from  the  other,  and  form  a  golden  chain  of 
many  links.  If  any  man,  however,  will  drink  at 
the  fountain  of  Mimer,  as  did  Odin,  he  must  pur- 
chase the  draught  at  the  price  of  something  dear. 
Wisdom  has  a  price,  which  he  must  pay  who 
would  secure  the  possession. 

Those  who  live  life  bravely  are  conducted  by 
maidens — the  valkyries — to  Odin's  Hall.  Here 
every  day  they  ride  into  the  court,  and  fight  and 
hew  one  another  in  pieces,  after  which  they  re- 
sort to  the  Hall,  and  drink  mead  from  the  skulls 
of  their  enemies.  After  Ragnarok  they  will  be 
admitted  to  golden  Gimle,  while  the  wicked  and 
all  cowards  will  leave  Hel  and  go  to  Naastrand, 
"the  strand  of  corpses."  This  is  a  cave,  with 
its  entrance  far  from  the  sun,  and  facing  the 
North.  It  is  built  of  wattled  serpents,  with 
their  heads  turned  inwards.  They  fill  the  room 
with  streams  of  poison,  in  which  the  unhappy 
dead  ever  wade — gory  heads  hanging  outside 
their  breasts,  faces  all  horrid  and  bloody,  poison- 
dragons  piercing  and  dark  ravens  tearing  their 
hearts,  and   their   hands   riveted   together  with 


THE  WARRIOR  A\f>  THE  THUXDERER.       367 

burning  stones.  The  three  principal  sins — be- 
sides cowardice,  which  is  the  worst  of  .ill  sins — 
for  which  the  wicked  suffer,  are  perjury,  murder, 
and  adultery.* 

Many  interests  depended  upon  Odin,  and  in 
his  various  enterprises  he  traveled  extensively. 
He  bountifully  bestowed  his  blessings  upon  his 
subjects. 

"Let  us  Odin  pray 
Into  our  minds  to  enter; 
He  gives  and  grants 
Gold  to  the  deserving. 
He  gave  Hermod 
A  helm  and  corselet, 
And  from  him  Sigmund 
A  sword  received. 

Victory  to  his  sous  he  gives, 

But  to  some  riches; 

Eloquence  to  the  great, 

And  to  men  wit; 

Fair  wind  he  gives  to  traders, 

But  visions  to  skalds; 

Valor  he  gives 

To  many  a  warrior." 

Loke,  the  cause  of  much  mischief  to  the  gods, 
through  malice,  once  upon  a  time,  cut  off  the 
hair  of  Sif,  the  wife  of  Thor.  To  save  his  own 
hide,  he   promised  Thor  to  get  from  the  dwarfs 


*  Anderson,  Norse  Mythology,  p.  62. 


368  DEPARTED  GODS. 

golden  hair  which  would  grow  the  same  as 
though  it  were  natural.  The  dwarfs  made  for 
him  not  only  the  golden  hair,  but  also  the  ship 
SJcidbladner,  which  would  insure  fair  wind  to  the 
owner,  and  could  be  folded  like  a  napkin  and 
placed  in  the  pocket;  and  the  spear  Gungner, 
which  would  cause  anything  which  it  struck  to 
tremble.  Loke,  who  must  have  been  in  a  merry 
mood,  now  wagered  his  head  with  Brok  that  his 
brother  Sindre  could  not  make  three  treasures 
of  equal  value.  Sindre  threw  into  the  furnace 
a  pigskin,  and  Brok  worked  at  the  bellows.  The 
boar  with  golden  bristles  was  made.  It  could 
run  swiftly,  day  and  night,  in  the  air  or  on  the 
sea,  and  it  would  be  always  light  along  its 
course.  He  then  threw  in  gold,  and  there  came 
out  the  ring  Draupner.  The  third  time  he  threw 
in  iron.  Now,  Loke  had  tried  to  compel  Brok  to 
leave  the  bellows,  changing  himself  into  a  fly, 
and  biting  the  hand  and  the  neck  of  the  dwarf 
while  at  his  labor.  Now  he  placed  himself  be- 
tween Brok's  eyes,  and  stung  his  eyelids  till  he 
was  blinded  by  the  blood.  Brok  let  go  the  bel- 
lows only  a  moment  to  brush  the  fly  away,  but 
it  nearly  destroyed  the  work.  There  came  out 
the  hammer  MjSlner,  with  which  the  owner 
could  strike  as  large  an  object  as  he  pleased,  and 
it  would  never  fail;  and  he   might  throw  it  to 


THE  WARRIOR  AXD  THE  THUNDERER.        369 

any  distance,  and  it  would  always  return  to  his 
hand.  Brok  took  the  treasures  to  Asgard  for 
thr  decision  of  the  gods,  and  Odin,  Thor,  and 
Frey  were  appointed  judges.  Loke  gave  Odin 
tin-  sjiear:  Thor  the  golden  hair,  which  immedi- 
ately grew  fast  to  Sif 's  head ;  and  Frey  the  ship. 
Brok  gave  Odin  the  ring,  Thor  the  hammer,  and 
Frey  the  boar.  The  judges  voted  the  hammer 
the  best  of  all  the  treasures,  though  the  handle 
was  a  little  short.  Loke  saved  his  head,  how- 
ever, by  pleading  that  the  wager  did  not  include 
any  part  of  his  neck;  but  the  dwarf  sewed  his 
lips  together. 

Odin  had  three  wives — Jord,  representing  the 
original  inhabited  earth;  Frigg,  the  earth  culti- 
vated by  man;  and  Rind,  the  earth  held  fast  in 
the  frosts  of  winter.  Frigg  was  the  first  among 
the  goddesses,  the  queen  of  the  asas  and  asynjes, 
and  most  dear  to  her  husband.  She  possessed 
a  magnificent  mansion,  Fensal;  and  a  falcon- 
disguise,  which,  on  one  occasion,  Loke  borrowed. 
She  has  several  maid-servants.  Fulla  cares  for 
the  slippers  of  her  mistress,  assists  her  at  her 
toilet,  and  is  a  confidant  to  whom  she  intrusts 
all  her  secrets.  She  is  represented  with  hair 
flowing  over  her  beautiful  shoulders,  and  a  golden 
ribbon  adorning  her  head.  Hlyn  has  the  care 
of  those   whom    Frigg   wishes    to   deliver   from 


370 


DEPARTED  GODS. 


peril.  Gnaa,  riding  on  her  horse  Hofvarpner, 
which  can  run  through  air  or  Water,  carries  the 
messages   of  the  goddess.     Var,  wise   and  pru- 


FREYA,  OR  FRIGG. 


dent,  listens  to  oaths,  and  punishes  those  who 
keep  not  their  promises.  Lofn,  mild  and  gra- 
cious, can  remove  every  obstacle  which  prevents 


THE  WARRIOR  AND  THE  THUNDERER.        371 

the  union  of  lovers.  Sjofn  turns  men's  hearts 
;in<l  thoughts  to  love.  Syn  keeps  the  door  of  the 
hall,  and  presides  at  certain  trials.  Snotra  is 
wise  and  courtly. 

Rind  is  hard,  cold,  and  stubborn,  and  Odin 
has  great  difficulty  in  her  wooing.  According  to 
some  accounts  he  accomplished  his  desire  only 
by  strategy.     Says  the  Havamal : 

"  The  mind  only  knows 
What  lies  near  the  heart ; 
That  aloue  is  conscious  of  our  affections. 
No  disease  is  worse 
To  a  sensible  man 
Thau* not  to  be  content  with  himself. 

That  I  experienced 
When  in  the  reeds  I  sat 
Awaiting  my  delight. 
Body  and  soul  to  me 
Was  that  discreet  maiden : 
Nevertheless  I  possess  her  not. 

Billing's  lass 

On  her  couch  I  found, 

Sun-bright,  sleeping. 

A  prince's  joy 

To  me  seemed  naught, 

If  not  with  that  form  to  live. 

Many  a  fair  maiden, 

When  rightly  known, 

Toward  men  is  fickle: 

That  I  experienced 

When  that  discreet  maiden  I 


372  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Strove  to  win: 

Contumely  of  every  kind 

That  wily  girl 

Heaped  upon  me ; 

Nor  of  that  damsel  gained  I  aught." 

This  is  nothing  more  than  the  beneficent 
heaven  trying  to  woo  the  cold,  wintry  world  of 
the  north  into  the  warmth  and  cheer  and  fruitful- 
ness  of  spring  and  summer. 

We  have  seen  that  Odin  is  a  poet,  and  must 
now  relate  how  he  chanced  to  become  endowed 
with  this  rare  gift.  There  had  been  a  long  and 
bitter  war  between  the  asas  and  the  vans.  At 
last  peace  was  declared,  its  terms  agreeed  upon, 
and  the  treaty  ratified  by  each  party  spitting 
into  a  jar.  To  commemorate  the  event,  the  gods 
formed  out  of  the  spittle  a  being  named  Kvaser, 
who  was  so  wise  that  he  could  answer  any  ques- 
tion. While  journeying  through  the  world  to 
teach  men  wisdom  he  was  treacherously  mur- 
dered by  the  dwarfs,  Fjalar  and  Galar.  By  mixing 
his  blood  with  honey,  the  dwarfs  formed  a  pre- 
cious drink  which  would  inspire  with  the  gift  of 
song. 

While  the  giant  Gilling  and  his  wife  were 
visiting  the  dwarfs  upon  their  special  invitation, 
they  invited  Gilling  to  the  further  entertainment 
of  a  boat-ride,  but  capsized  the  boat  by  running 


THE  WARRIOR  AND  THE  THUNDERER.      373 

against  a  rock.  The  giant  was  drowned,  and  his 
wife  when  she  heard  the  sad  news  became  in- 
consolable. Fjalar  suggested  to  her  that  she 
might  find  some  consolation,  if  she  would  look 
out  upon  the  waters  where  her  husband  met  liis 
death.  When  she  passed  out  of  the  door,  Galar 
threw  down  a  millstone  upon  her  head  and  killed 
her,  saying  that  he  was  sick  and  disgusted  with 
her  crying.  Such  a  crime  was  not  to  remain  un- 
avenged. Suttung,  the  son  of  the  giant,  took  the 
dwarfs  out  to  sea  and  left  them  on  a  shoal  where 
at  high  tide  they  would  be  drowned,  but  rescued 
them  for  the  inspiring  beverage. 

Odin  learned  of  its  existence  and  determined 
to  obtain  its  possession.  Journeying  towards 
Jotunheim,  he  came  to  a  meadow  in  which  nine 
thralls  were  mowing.  He  whet  their  scythes 
with  a  whetstone  which  he  carried  in  his  belt. 
He  gave  the  knives  so  keen  an  edge  that  the 
thralls  wished  to  purchase  it,  but  Odin  threw  it 
up  into  the  air  that  it  might  become  the  property 
of  the  one  who  caught  it.  In  attempting  to  catch 
it,  each  thrall  turned  in  such  a  manner  that  his 
scythe  cut  off  the  head  of  one  of  his  comrades. 
So  the  nine  laborers  died.  The  owner  of  the 
meadow  was  Suttung's  brother,  and  Odin  lodged 
with  him  that  night,  and  soon  engaged  to  do  for 
him  the  work  of  nine   men  provided  he — Bauge 

32 


374  DEPARTED  GODS. 

was  his  name — would  assist  him  in  procuring 
from  his  brother  the  wonderful  drink.  When  win- 
ter set  in  Odin  and  Bauge  visited  Suttung,  and 
explained  to  him  the  nature  of  the  agreement  as 
to  work,  but  he  could  not  be  prevailed  upon 
to  part  with  a  drop  of  the  precious  verse-inspiring 
beverage. 

The  drink  was  preserved  in  a  cavern  under  the 

bm  wc  mi  m  w 

Wff  rtflM/KR/Rir. 

SCANDINAVIAN  RUNES. 
(Inscription  in  the  Church  at  Fladdahlen.) 

guardianship  of  Gunlad,  Suttung's  daughter. 
Odin  had  an  auger  called  Rate,  and  with  this 
Bauge  bored  through  the  rock  into  the  cave  and 
the  god  entered  in  the  form  of  a  worm.  Assum- 
ing his  natural  shape  he  succeeded  in  winning 
the  heart  of  the  daughter,  who  was  induced  to 
let  him  drink  of  the  mead.  He  drank  so  deep 
that  the  kettle  Odroerer  and  the  cups  Sou  and 
Bodn  were  all  exhausted.     Transforming  himself 


THE  WARRIOR  AND  THE  THUNDERER.      375 

into  an  eagle,  he  Hew  swiftly  away.  Suttung 
learned  of  the  divine  theft,  and  followed  in  pur- 
suit. The  gods  in  Asgard  saw  him  coming,  and 
had  jars  ready  into  which  he  disgorged  the  liq- 
uor, lie  was  so  closely  pursued  that  he  sent 
some  of  the  mead  backwards,  enough  for  the  silly 
poets.  But  the  main  supply  is  for  the  poets  who 
are  poets  indeed,  and  the  gods.  Saga,  the  goddess 
of  history,  is  also  much  associated  with  Odin. 

Odin  was  also  the  inventor  of  the  runes  and 
the  author  of  those  runic  incantations  so  familiar 
in  the  history  of  Norsemen.  He  did  not  possess 
himself  of  these  powerful  secrets  without  a  strug- 
gle. Nine  nights  he  hung  on  Ygdrasil  and  sac- 
rificed himself  to  himself. 

"  I  know  that  I  hung 
On  a  wind-rocked  tree 
Nine  whole  nights, 
With  a  spear  wounded 
And  to  Odin  offered, 
Myself  to  myself. 
On  that  tree 
Of  which  no  one  knows 
From  what  root  it  springs. 

Bread  no  one  gave  me 
Nor  a  horn  of  drink, 
Downward  I  peered, 
To  runes  applied  myself, 
Wailing  learnt  them, 
Then  fell  down  thence. 


376  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Then  I  began  to  bear  fruit 
And  to  know  many  things, 
To  grow  and  well  thrive." 

The  runes  of  Odin  were  risted  everywhere, 
and  then  scraped  off,  and  mixed  with  the  holy 
mead,  sent  to  asas,  elves,  and  sons  of  men  in  all 
parts  of  the  world. 

Valhal,  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  is 
situated  in  Gladsheim.  It  is  a  great  and  spa- 
cious hall,  all  resplendent  with  gold.  The  roof 
is  formed  with  shields;  the  ceiling  is  supported 
by  spears;  coats  of  mail  adorn  its  benches; 
swords  serve  the  purposes  of  light  and  fire. 
Outside  is  the  grove  Glaser,  the  leaves  of  whose 
trees  are  red  gold.  The  boar  Sahrimner  is 
cooked  by  Andhrimner  in  the  kettle  Eldhrimner 
every  morning,  and  served  up  to  the  heroes  of 
Valhal;  but  becomes  whole  every  night,  and  is 
ready  to  be  cooked  again.  The  goat  Heidrun, 
which  stands  above  Odin's  Hall  and  feeds  on  the 
wonderful  tree  Lerad,  furnishes  the  whole  host 
with  rich  drink.  The  stag  Eikthyrner  feeds  on 
the  leaves  of  the  same  tree,  and  from  his  broad 
antlers  fall  drops  into  Hvergelmer  sufficient  to 
fill  the  thirty-six  rivers  which  flow  thence — 
twelve-  to  the  home  of  the  gods,  twelve  to  the 
abodes  of  men,  and  twelve  to  Niflheim. 

Thor,  the  son  of  Odin  by  Jord,  is  the  god  of 


378  DEPARTED  GODS. 

thunder,  and  ranks  next  to  the  chief  god.  He 
dwells  in  gloomy  Thrudheim,  in  his  shining  pal- 
ace Bilskernir,  with  its  five  hundred  and  forty 
floors,  whence  he  sends  forth  upon  the  world  his 
swift  lightnings.  He  fights  ever  victoriously 
against  the  frost-giants,  though  sometimes  sub- 
jected to  temporary  defeat.  Strong,  beneficent, 
mighty  against  all  enemies,  his  exploits  full  of 
marvels,  his  victories  many  and  signal,  he  fills  a 
large  place  in  the  mythologic  system  of  the 
Norse.  He  has  three  valuable  treasures — his 
hammer  Mjolner,  wherewith  the  skulls  of  many 
frost-giants  and  mountain-giants  have  been  split 
asunder;  his  belt  of  strength  Meging-jarder, 
with  which  being  girded  his  strength  is  doubled; 
and  his  iron  gloves,  with  which  he  holds  his 
hammer's  haft.  When  he  swings  his  hammer, 
and  sends  it  crashing  along  the  mountain-tops, 
and  when  his  chariot  wheels  rumble, — this  is  the 
voice  of  thunder.  When  he  blows  through  his 
beard,  it  is  the  roar  of  the  storm.  When  he 
knits  his  brows,  it  is  the  dark  and  threatening 
storm-cloud.  When  his  hammer  strikes  fire,  as 
it  crashes  along  from  rock  to  rock;  when  the 
goats  which  draw  his  chariot  strike  fire  with 
their  hoofs,  or  by  grinding  their  teeth  together, — 
this  is  the  lightning.  When  his  eyes  blaze  and 
flash,  it  is  the  scarlet  cloud.     The  mythology  of 


THE  WARRIOR  AND  THE  THUNDERER.       379 

the  German  races  is  full  of  stories  of  his  wrath, 
his  prowess,  his  journeys,  his  battles,  and  his 
victories. 

"Wide  is  the  contrast  between  Woden  and 
Thunder  in  the  lays  of  the  earlier  poets.  Thor 
is  a  less  complex  divinity,  with  a  well-marked 
and  individual  character;  the  friend  of  man,  the 
husbandman's  god,  whose  wrath  and  anger  are 
ever  directed  against  the  evil  powers  that  injure 
mortals  and  their  possessions,  whose  bolt  de- 
stroys the  foul,  thick  blights  that  betray  the 
presence  of  the  wicked  ones,  and  smites  through 
the  huge  cloud-masses  that  seem  to  be  crushing 
the  earth.  Thus  we  "see  him  ever  associated 
with  Earth,  who  bore  him  to  heaven.  .  .  . 
The  homely  features  of  Thor's  character  mark 
him  out  for  humorous  treatment,  and  the  anony- 
mous Aristophanes  of  the  West,  and  Snorri  him- 
self, deal  so  with  him.  Alone  of  all  the  go<K 
we  find  his  image  carved  on  stocks  and  stones — 
a  long-bearded  face,  with  the  hammer  hung  be- 
neath ;  and  the  hammer  itself,  a  primitive,  stone- 
headed,  short-hafted  instrument,  is  found  sepa- 
rately as  a  charm.  The  'Anse,'  or  'the  god  of 
the  country — or  'the  mighty  god*  in  the  old 
carmina  of  oaths  and  vows — always  refers  to 
Thor.  It  is  curious  to  notice  how  ill  the  sturdy 
farmer's  friend  suits  the  new  Walhall.     The  poets 


380  DEPARTED  GODS. 

get  out  of  the  difficulty  by  making  him  stay  away 
fighting  giants;  his  uncouth  might  is  scarcely 
needed,  when  Woden  has  a  host  of  chosen 
warriors  ever  ready  to  defend  himself  and  his 
friends."* 

Odin,  riding  on  his  wonderful  horse  Sleipner, 
had  reached  the  home  of  a  mighty  giant, 
Hrungner,  who  dwelt  in  Jotunheim.  The  latter 
paid  a  high  compliment  to  the  horse,  when  Odin, 
in  his  pride,  said  that  he  would  wager  his  head 
that  no  such  horse  could  be  found  in  Jotunheim. 
The  giant  admitted  the  excellent  qualities  of  the 
horse,  but  said  that  his  own  horse,  Goldfax,  was 
superior;  and  mounting  the  fleet  steed,  started 
in  pursuit  of  Odin,  who  galloped  away  toward 
Asgard.  The  god  kept  ahead,  but  the  giant 
worked  up  so  great  a  momentum  of  speed  and 
excitement  that,  before  he  was  aware  of  it,  he 
found  himself  in  Asgard.  The  gods  entertained 
him  magnificently,  and  when  he  became  mel- 
lowed with  the  mead,  which  he  drank  in  enor- 
mous quantities,  he  took  to  vain  boasting — threat- 
ening to  drink  up  all  the  mead,' demolish  Asgard, 
and  kill  all  the  gods  except  Freyja  and  Sif, 
whom  he  would  take  home.  The  gods  became 
tired  of  his  arrogance,  and  called  Thor,  who  had 
gone   eastward  to  crush  trolls.     Thor  came,  and 

*Rhys,  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  pp.  645,  646. 


33 


382  DEPARTED  GODS. 

seeing  the  condition  of  affairs,  blazed  with  anger. 
He  would  have  slain  the  giant  with  his  hammer, 
but  would  not  take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  his 
foe  was  unarmed.  Hrungner  challenged  him  to 
a  fair  duel,  and  went  home  to  get  his  weapons. 
The  gods,  it  would  appear,  feared  that  if  Thor 
were  victorious,  he  would,  in  the  freshness  of  his 
rage,  ill-treat  all  the  gods  of  Asgard.  So  they 
made  a  man  of  clay  of  vast  proportions,  and 
placed  in  his  breast  the  heart  of  a„mare,  which, 
however,  fluttered  and  trembled  at  the  appear- 
ance of  Thor.  Hrungner  had  a  sharp,  three-cor- 
nered heart,  as  hard  as  a  stone.  His  head  was 
equally  hard,  and  so  was  his  shield.  The  clay 
giant,  which  stood  at  his  side,  was  so  terrified 
that  sweat  poured  from  his  body.  Thor  was 
accompanied  by  his  servant  Thjalfe,  who  per- 
suaded the  giant  to  put  his  shield  beneath  his 
feet,  saying  that  Thor  would  attack  him  from 
that  direction.  Amid  flashing  lightning  and  roll- 
ing thunder  Thor  rushed  forward  and  hurled 
his  hammer.  At  the  same  time  Hrungner  threw 
his  immense  flint-stone.  The  two  weapons  met 
in  mid-air.  The  stone  broke  into  two  pieces; 
one  piece  fell  to  the  ground,  and  the  other  piece 
struck  the  head  of  Thor  and  knocked  him  flat 
to  the  ground.  The  hammer  crushed  the  skull 
of  the   giant   into   small   pieces,  and   he  fell  in 


THE  WARRIOR  AND  THE  THUNDERER.         383 

such  a  position  that  his  foot  lay  across  Thor's 
neck.  Thjalfe,  who  had  slain  the  clay  giant,  was 
not  able  to  take  away  Hrungner's  foot.  No  one 
of  the  gods  could  lift  the  foot.  At  length  Magne, 
the  son  of  Thor  and  Jarnsaxa,  came,  and  threw 
it  off  quite  easily,  saying  that  if  he  had  been 
present  he  thought  he  could  have  slain  the  giant 
with  his  fist. 

When  Thor  had  returned  to  Thrudheim,  he 
employed  a  noted  sorceress  to  remove  the  flint- 
stone  from  his  forehead.  Her  name  was  Groa, 
and  she  was  the  wife  of  Orvandel  the  Wise.  She 
had  nearly  removed  the  stone,  when  Thor,  to 
please  her,  related  how  he  had  waded  the  rivers 
Elivagar,  bearing  her  husband  on  his  shoulders 
in  a  basket,  from  Jotunheim ;  how  one  of  his  toes 
had  stuck  through  a  hole  in  the  basket,  and  had 
frozen,  and  how  he  broke  it  off  and  threw  it  up 
into  the  sky,  and  it  became  the  star  called  Or- 
vandel's  Toe.  Furthermore  he  told  her  that  her 
husband  would  soon  return.  Groa  became  so 
happy  at  the  glad  news  that  she  quite  forgot  all 
her  enchantments,  and  the  stone,  though  some- 
what loosened,  still  remained  in  Thor's  forehead; 
and  whenever  any  one  throws  a  flint-stone  across 
the  floor,  this  stone  in  Thor's  head  moves,  and 
produces  great  pain. 

One  day  Thor  took  Loke  on  a  journey  in  a  car 


384  DEPARTED  GODS. 

drawn  by  his  two  goats.  At  night  they  stopped  at 
a  peasant's  cottage  and  cooked  the  goats  for  sup- 
per. This  peasant  had  a  son  and  a  daughter — 
Thjalfe  and  Roskva.  Thor  directed  them  to  put 
the  bones  of  the  goats  into  their  skins.  In  the 
morning  he  raised  the  goats  by  the  use  of  his 
hammer,  but  one  of  them  was  lame,  for  Thjalfe 
had  broken  the  shank  bone  to  obtain  the  marrow. 
The  peasant  appeased  the  anger  of  the  god  by 
giving  his  children  to  become  the  servants  of 
the  Thunderer  forever.  They  journeyed  all  day, 
and  at  night  found  lodging  in  an  empty  house, 
the  door  of  which  took  up  the  whole  of  one 
side.  At  midnight  there  was  a  great  earthquake, 
and  the  company  fled  for  safety  into  an  inner 
room,  Thor  standing  in  the  doorway  with  his 
hammer  in  his  hand.  In  the  morning  they  went 
out  and  saw  a  great  giant  lying  near,  whose  snor- 
ing had  caused  the  rumbling  and  roaring  and  dis- 
turbance of  the  night.  The  giant  awoke,  and,  to 
a  question,  answered  that  his  name  was  Skrymer. 
He  at  once  recognized  the  Thunder-god.  The 
house  in  which  the  company  had  lodged  was  his 
mitten,  the  thumb  of  which  was  the  inner  cham- 
ber. They  all  traveled  together  during  this  day 
and  at  night  selected  a  place  to  sleep  beneath  an 
oak.  Skrymer  had  carried  the  provisions  in  his 
own  sack.     He  had   eaten  his  supper   and   had 


THE  WARRIOR  AXD  THE  THUNDERER.       3«5 

fallen  asleep,  when  Thor  attempted  to  open  the 
sack,  but  was  not  able  to  untie  the  string.  Angry 
at  his  failure  he  struck  the  giant  on  the  head  with 
his  hammer.  Skrymer  awoke,  and  asked  whether 
a  leaf  had  not  fallen  on  his  head.  Again  sleeping, 
he  snored  so  outrageously  that  the  noise  filled 
the  whole  forest.  Thor  gave  him  another  blow, 
this  time  the  hammer  sinking  into  his  forehead 
up  to  the  very  handle.  He  again  awoke  and  in- 
quired whether  an  acorn  had  not  fallen.  Toward 
morning  the  Thunder-god  struck  him  a  third 
time,  and  he  thought  that  birds  must  have  been 
roosting  in  the  tree  and  had  loosened  some  moss. 
That  morning  he  bade  Thor  good-bye,  and  disap- 
peared in  the  woods. 

Thor  and  his  companions  still  journeyed 
towards  Utgard  and  at  noon  came  to  a  vast  cas- 
tle, which  they  entered  by  creeping  between  the 
bars  of  the  gate.  A  multitude  of  men  of  im- 
mense size  were  sitting  on  two  benches ;  and 
Utgard-Loke,  their  king,  addressed  Thor  scorn- 
fully, calling  him  a  "  little  stripling."  A  trial  of 
feats  was  proposed.  A  trough  full  of  meat  was 
brought  in,  and  Loke  placed  at  one  end,  and  Loge 
at  the  other.  They  met  in  the  middle,  but  Loge 
had  eaten  not  only  all  the  bones,  but  even  the 
trough  itself,  and  was  declared  the  winner.  Then 
Thjalfe  ran  three  races  with  Huge,  but  lost  each 


386  DEPARTED  GODS. 

race.  Thor  now  suggested  that  he  could  do 
something  wonderful  in  the  way  of  drinking. 
Utgard-Loke  gave  him  a  horn,  which  he  should 
have  emptied  at  one  draught;  but  though  he 
drank  as  long  as  his  breath  would  last  three  sep- 
arate times,  he  seemed  scarcely  to  have  dimin- 
ished the  contents.  The  king  of  the  giants  could 
not  restrain  his  supreme  contempt  for  such  puny 
strength.  He  said  that,  for  the  amusement  of 
children,  he  had  sometimes  asked  the  little  ones 
to  lift  his  cat,  but  a  young  man  would  consider  it 
nothing  but  play.  He,  however,  proposed  it  to 
Thor ;  but  the  god,  though  exerting  himself  to 
the  uttermost,  was  able  to  raise  but  one  foot  of 
the  cat  from  the  floor.  The  anger  of  Thor  was 
now  thoroughly  roused,  and  he  challenged  any  of 
the  company  to  a  bout  with  him  at  wrestling. 
The  king  of  the  giants  called  in  Elle,  his  nurse, 
a  toothless  old  hag,  who,  after  a  violent  struggle, 
brought  Thor  to  his  knees,  and  was  declared  the 
winner.  Thus  ended  the  trials  of  strength,  and 
most  humiliating  were  these  to  the  Thunderer 
and  his  companions. 

Utgard-Loke  accompanied  Thor  and  his  friends 
out  of  the  castle,  and  in  parting  with  them  said  : 
"  Now,  I  will  tell  you  the  truth,  since  you  are 
out  of  my  castle,  where  as  long  as  I  live  and 
reign  you  shall  never  re-enter,  and  you  may  rest 


THE  WARRIOR  AND  THE  THUNDEMMR.      387 

assured  that  had  I  known  before  what  might  you 
possessed,  and  how  near  you  came  plunging  us 
into  great  trouble,  I  would  not  have  permitted 
you  to  enter  this  time.  Know,  then,  that  I  have 
all  along  deceived  you  by  my  illusions,  first,  in 
the  forest,  where  I  arrived  before  you,  and  there 
you  were  unable  to  untie  the  provision-sack,  be- 
cause I  had  bound  it  with  tough  iron  in  such  a 
manner  that  you  could  not  discover  how  the 
knot  ought  to  be  loosened.  After  this  you  gave 
me  three  blows  with  your  hammer ;  the  first  one, 
though  it  was  the  least,  would  have  ended  my 
days  had  it  fallen  on  me,  but  I  brought  a  rocky 
mountain  before  me,  which  you  did  not  perceive; 
but  you  saw  near  my  castle  a  mountain  in  which 
were  three  square  glens,  the  one  deeper  than  the 
other,  and  those  were  the  marks  of  your  hammer. 
I  have  made  use  of  similar  illusions  in  the  con- 
tests you  have  had  with  my  courtiers.  In  the 
first,  Loke  was  hungry  and  devoured  all  that 
was  set  before  him ;  but  Loge  was  in  reality  noth- 
ing else  but  wild-fire,  and  therefore  consumed  not 
only  the  meat,  but  the  trough  which  contained 
it.  Huge,  with  whom  Thjalfe  contended  in  run- 
ning, was  my  thought,  and  it  was  impossible  for 
Thjalfe  to  keep  pace  with  it.  When  you  tried 
to  empty  the  horn  you  performed  indeed  an  ex- 
ploit so   marvelous  that,  had   I  not  seen  it  my- 


388  DEPARTED  GODS. 

self,  I  should  never  have  believed  it.  The  one 
end  of  the  horn  stood  in  the  sea,  which  you  did 
not  perceive,  and  when  you  come  to  the  shore 
you  will  see  how  much  the  ocean  has  diminished 
by  what  you  drank.  This  is  now  called  the  ebb. 
You  performed  a  feat  no  less  wonderful  when 
you  lifted  the  cat.  To  tell  the  truth,  when  we  saw 
that  one  of  his  paws  was  off  the  floor  we  were 
all  of  us  terror-stricken ;  for  what  you  took  for  a 
cat  was  in  reality  the  great  Midgard-serpent,  that 
encompasses  the  whole  earth,  and  he  was  then 
barely  long  enough  to  inclose  it  between  his  head 
and  tail,  so  high  had  your  hand  raised  him  up 
toward  heaven.  Your  wrestling  with  Elle  was 
also  a  most  astonishing  feat,  for  there  never  yet 
was,  nor  will  there  ever  be,  a  man  for  whom  Old 
Age — for  such  in  fact  was  Elle — will  not  sooner 
or  later  lay  low,  if  he  abides  her  coming."  * 

iEger,  the  terrible,  the  god  of  the  raging  sea, 
visited  the  asa-gods,  and  invited  them  to  pay  him 
a  visit  in  return.  It  is  his  custom  to  entertain 
the  gods  each  harvest.  They  enter  his  hall 
which  is  lighted  up  with  gold  as  Valhal  is  lighted 
up  with  swords.  iEger  has  no  kettle  large 
enough  to  hold  all  the  ale  which  will  be  needed 
at  this  feast  of  the  gods.  Tyr  says:  "East  of 
the  rivers  Elivagar,  near  the  borders  of  heaven, 

*  Anderson,  Norse  Mythology,  pp.  320-322. 


THE  WARRIOR  A!fD  THE  THUNDERER.      389 

dwells  the  dogwise  Hymer,  and  this  my  father 
has  a  kettle  which  is  strong  and  one  rast  (mile) 
deep."  This  he  thinks  can  be  secured  by  strat- 
agem. Together  with  Thor,  he  goes  to  Hymer's 
hall,  where  he  finds  his  grandmother,  an  evil 
giantess,  with  nine  hundred  heads ;  also  his  mother, 
a  beautiful  woman,  who  brings  him  a  drink.  By 
advice,  the  guests  conceal  themselves  under  the 
kettles  in  the  hall. 

Hymer  comes  home  late  from  fishing,  and  his 
wife  informs  him  of  the  presence  of  the  guests. 
He  glances  towards  the  place  where  they  are  con- 
cealed, and  the  post  is  broken  at  his  look,  the 
great  beam  falls,  and  the  kettles  are  all  dashed 
in  pieces — all  save  one,  hard  and  strong,  which 
remained  still  unharmed.  Three  steers  are  killed, 
and  served  on  the  table ;  and  Thor  eats  two  of 
these. 

Next  morning  Hymer  and  Thor  go  fishing,  and 
row  so  far  from  the  shore  that  the  heart  of  the 
giant  is  filled  with  terror;  but  he  soon  has  the  for- 
tune to  catch  two  whales.  Meantime  Thor  has 
baited  his  hook  with  the  head  which  he  had 
wrung  from  the  great  bull  Himinbrjoter,  or 
"  Heaven-breaker."  The  Midgard-serpent,  which 
has  grown  so  large  as  to  encircle  the  whole  earth, 
takes  the  bait,  and  the  hook  strikes  into  his  pal- 
ate.   Thor  puts  on  his  divine  strength,  and  pulls 


390  DEPARTED  GODS. 

so  hard  at  the  line  that  his  feet  go  through  the 
bottom  of  the  boat,  and  he  stands  on  the  ground 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  awful  serpent  is 
drawn  up  to  the  side  of  the  boat,  and  spouts  floods 
of  venom  at  the  god,  who,  in  turn,  darts  looks  of 
divine  wrath  at  the  eyes  of  his  enemy.  Thor 
raises  his  hammer ;  but  the  giant  cuts  the  line,  and 
the  serpent  sinks  out  of  sight.  Thor,  enraged  at 
the  cowardice  of  Hymer,  gives  him  so  sound  a 
blow  on  the  ear  with  his  fist  that  he  falls  head- 
long into  the  sea. 

Thor  now  takes  up  the  boat,  and  carries  it  to 
the  house  of  the  giant.  Hymer  challenges  the 
god  to  other  exhibitions  of  strength,  and  requests 
him  to  break  his  goblet.  Thor  throws  it  through 
some  large  posts,  but  it  receives  no  harm.  He 
is  told  to  try  it  against  Hymer's  forehead.  He 
hurls  it  with  all  his  strength.  It  is  broken,  but 
Hymer's  forehead  is  uninjured.  Another  trial  of 
strength  is  to  bring  the  kettle  out  of  the  hall. 
Thor  lifts  it,  and  his  feet  crash  through  the"  floor 
of  the  hall.  He  puts  it  on  his  head  like  a  hat, 
and  walks  off  with  it,  the  rings  hanging  down  to 
his  heels.  The  giants  pursue  him,  but  he  slays 
them  with  his  hammer.  Now  iEger  can  brew 
ale  for  the  gods. 


III. 

GODS  AND  NO-GODS. 

BALDER,  the  son  of  Odin  and  Frigg,  is  the 
favorite  among  all  the  gods.  He  is  kind, 
wise,  eloquent,  and  so  fair  and  dazzling  in  per- 
sonal appearance  that  light  seems  to  issue  from 
his  body.  He  dwells  in  the  pure,  heavenly 
mansion  Breidablik. 

Once  upon  a  time  he  had  a  dream  which 
troubled  him  so  much  that  he  related  it  to  the 
gods.  They  feared  for  his  personal  safety,  and 
resolved  to  use  all  means  within  their  power  to 
guard  him  against  every  peril.  Frigg  exacted 
an  oath  from  all  things — trees,  weapons,  stones, 
diseases,  beasts,  birds,  fire,  water — that  they 
would  not  injure  Balder.  She  did  not  visit  a 
small  mistletoe  that  grew  west  of  Valhal,  be- 
cause she  thought  it  too  weak  to  do  any  harm. 
Odin  was  not  fully  satisfied  with  these  precau- 
tions. He  visited  Niflheim,  riding  fleet  Sleipner. 
The  dog  of  Hel  barked  at  him,  but  permitted 
him  to  pass,  and  he  reached  the  grave  of  a 
prophetess.  Calling  her  up  by  incantations,  he 
propounded    the  question   which  was  disturbing 

3!U 


392  DEPARTED  GODS. 

his  mind.  His  worst  fears  were  confirmed. 
Loke  was  to  become  the  bane  of  Balder.  But 
already  every  precaution  had  been  taken,  and 
nothing  more  could  be  done. 

When  the  gods  knew  that  Balder  had  been 
rendered  invulnerable,  as  a  sport  they  tried  all 
kinds  of  weapons  upon  him  in  vain.  Thus  they 
thought  they  were  doing  him  special  honor. 
Some  hurled  darts  at  him,  others  hurled  stones; 
some  hewed  at  him  with  swords,  others  with 
battle-axes.  Loke  became  jealous  and  angry. 
Under  the  disguise  of  a  woman,  he  visited  Frigg 
in  her  palace,  and  learned  from  her  the  secret 
of  the  mistletoe.  This  he  procured,  and,  placing 
it  in  the  hand  of  blind  Hoder,  directed  his  aim 
in  the  sport  of  the  gods,  and  Balder  was  slain. 
Loud  and  long  were  the  lamentations  called  forth 
at  the  death  of  the  mild  and  beneficent  god. 
His  body  was  placed  in  his  own  ship  Ringhorn, 
and,  with  the  help  of  a  giantess,  Hyrroken,  who 
was  summoned  from  Jotunheim,  the  ship  was 
launched.  Nanna,  the  wife  of  Balder,  died  of 
grief,  and  her  body  was  placed  on  the  same  pile. 
A  vast  concourse  attended  the  funeral.  At  the 
request  of  Frigg,  Hermod,  the  son  of  Odin,  jour- 
neyed to  Hel,  to  endeavor  to  procure  permission 
for  Balder  to  return  to  Asgard.  He  rode  nine 
days  and  nine  nights  through  deep,  dark  valleys, 


(10DS  AND  NO-GODS.  393 

when  he  reached  a  bridge,  covered  with  glittering 
gold,  which  spanned  the  river  Gjol.  From  Mod- 
gud,  a  maiden  who  kept  the  bridge,  he  Leaned 
that  Balder  had  crossed,  and  that  the  road  led 
northward  and  downward.  Hastening  ever  on- 
ward, he  reached  Hel  at  last,  and  his  horse 
Nimble  cleared  the  wall  at  a  single  bound.  En- 
tering the  palace  of  Hel,  he  found  his  brother, 
who  occupied  an  honorable  position  in  this 
gloomy  realm.  He  made  known  his  mission. 
Hel  replied  that  if  everything  in  the  world 
would  weep  for  Balder,  she  would  permit  him  to 
return  to  Asgard.  All  things,  animate  and  in- 
animate, wept  except  one  giantess,  Thok  by 
name — she  may  have  been  Loke  in  disguise — 
who  said  : 

"Thok  will  weep 
With  dry  tears 
For  Balder's  death. 
Neither  iu  life  nor  in  death 
Gave  he  me  gladness. 
Let  Hel  keep  what  she  has." 

The  myth  of  Balder  is  easily  understood.  Balder 
is  the  sun,  Loke  is  fire,  and  Hoder  is  darkness. 
All  nature  loves  light,  is  attracted  towards  it, 
and  weeps  when  it  is  gone.  In  an  ethical  sense 
Balder  may  be  the  heavenly  light  of  the  soul. 
The  light  of  innocence  is  invulnerable  save  only 


394  DEPARTED  GODS. 

when  touched  by  the  cruel  darts  of  slander  and 
jealousy. 

Nanna,  the  wife  of  Balder,  is  the  goddess  of 
flowers,  and  dies  with  the  summer. 

Anderson,  whose  interpretations  we  are  fol- 
lowing, says :  "  Upon  the  whole  we  may  say 
that  a  sun-myth  first  represents  the  death  of  the 
day  at  sunset,  when  the  sky  is  radiant  as  if 
dyed  in  blood.  In  the  flushing  morn,  light  wins 
its  victory  again.  Then  the  same  myth  became 
transferred  to  the  death  and  birth  of  summer. 
Once  more  it  is  lifted  into  a  higher  sphere,  while 
still  holding  on  to  its  physical  interpretation, 
and  is  applied  to  the  world  year.  Finally,  it  is 
clothed  with  ethical  attributes,  becomes  thor- 
oughly anthropomorphized,  and  typifies  the  good 
and  the  evil,  the  virtues  and  the  vices  (light  and 
darkness)  in  the  character  and  life  of  gods  and 
men.  Thus  we  get  four  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  myth."* 

Such  is  the  beautiful  myth  of  Balder.  It 
may  be  well  doubted  whether  many  of  the  sturdy 
Norse  saw  all  this  in  the  myth,  yet  it  may  have 
been  the  secret  of  the  few. 

Forsette,  the  son  of  Balder  and  Nanna,  dwells 
in  the  heavenly  mansion  Glitner,  with  its  golden 
columns   and  silver  roof.     Most  important  cases 

*  Anderson,  The  Younger  Edda,  pp.  265,  266. 


GODS  AND  XO  GODS. 

are  brought  to  his  tribunal  of  justice,  and  he 
reconciles,  to  their  perfect  satisfaction,  all  dis- 
putants at  law. 

Iltimdal,  the  son  of  Odin,  is  an  important 
god.  He  had  nine  mothers,  who  were  sisters. 
"An  ancient  god  is  Heimdal,  from  whom  the 
Amals  spring.  There  are  strange  lost  myths 
connected  with  him ;  his  struggle  with  Loki  for 
the  Brisinga  necklace,  the  fight  in  which  they 
fought  in  the  shape  of  seals.  He  is  '  the  gods' 
warder,'  dwelling  on  the  gods'  path,  the  rainbow. 
There  he  sits,  'the  white  god,'  'the  wind-listen- 
ing god,'  whose  ears  are  so  sharp  that  he  hears 
the  grass  grow  in  the  fields  and  the  wool  on  the 
sheeps'  backs,  with  his  Blasthorn,  whose  trumpet- 
sound  will  ring  through  the  nine  worlds ;  for,  in 
the  later  legends,  he  has  some  of  the  attributes 
of  the  Angel  of  the  Last  Trumpet.  His  teeth 
are  of  gold;  hence  he  is  'stud-endowed.'  Curi- 
ous genealogical  myths  attach  themselves  to  him. 
He  is  styled  the  son  of  nine  mothers;  and  as 
Rig's  father,  or  Rig  himself,  the  'walking  or 
wandering  god,'  he  is  the  father  of  men  and  the 
sire  of  kings,  and  of  earls  and  ceorls  and  thralls 
alike.  His  own  name  is  epithetic,  perhaps  the 
world-bow."  * 

Brage  is  also  the  son  of  Odin  aud  is  celebrated 

•Rhys,  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  1886,  p.  83. 


396  DEPARTED  GODS. 

for  his  wisdom,  eloquence,  and  gracefulness  of 
speech.  He  is  a  skillful  poet, and  runes  are  risted 
on  his  tongue.  His  wife  is  Idun,  and  she  it  is  who 
keeps  the  golden  apples  which  the  gods  have  only 
to  taste  to  insure  to  them  perpetual  youth.  One 
day  when  Odin,  Loke,  and  Hoener  were  on  a  jour- 
ney, they  came  to  a  herd  of  cattle  grazing  in  a  val- 
ley, and  killed  one  for  their  supper.  But  boil  it 
however  much  they  might,  the  flesh  ever  re- 
mained raw.  An  eagle  from  an  oak-tree  told  them 
that  if  she  could  have  a  share  in  the  feast  the 
ox  would  soon  boil.  They  consented,  and  the 
eagle  flew  down  and  snatched  the  two  thighs 
and  the  two  shoulders.  Loke,  angry  at  this  greed, 
struck  the  bird  on  the  back  with  a  pole.  The 
pole  stuck  fast  to  the  eagle,  and  he  was  not  able 
to  let  go  his  hold,  and  so  was  borne  away,  over 
mountains  and  forests,  until  he  was  seriously  man- 
gled and  torn  by  this  rough  usage.  The  eagle 
was  the  giant  Thjasse  in  his  eagle  plumage.  Now, 
to  secure  his  release,  Loke  agreed  to  procure  for 
the  giant  the  golden  apples.  Upon  returning  to 
Asgard,  he  prevailed  upon  Idun  to  take  her  ap- 
ples into  the  forest,  to  compare  them  with  apples 
which  he  said  he  found  growing  there,  and  which 
he  considered  much  fairer  than  her  own.  Thjasse, 
in  eagle  form,  caught  up  Idun  and  bore  her  away 
to  Jotunheim.     The  apples  being  gone,  the  gods 


GODS  AND  NO-GODS.  397 

began  to  grow  old.  When  inquiry  was  made, 
Loke  was  found  to  be  the  cause  of  their  dire 
misfortune,  and  they  threatened  him  with  instant 
torture  and  death.  He  promised  to  return  the 
apples,  and  borrowed  from  Freyja  her  eagle  plu- 
mage. Thus  clad,  he  flevyj  away  to  Jotunheim, 
and  transforming  Idun  into  a  nut,  he  brought  her 
in  his  claws  to  Asgard.  Thjasse  was  in  hot  pur- 
suit, but  the  gods  lighted  a  fire  on  the  walls  of 
Asgard,  which  caught  his  plumage.  He  fell  into 
their  power  and  was  slain.  His  daughter  Skadu 
came  to  avenge  his  death,  but  the  gods  were  able 
to  appease  her  wrath  and  make  atonement  for 
the  deed.  Part  of  the  arrangement  was  that  she 
was  to  select  from  the  gods  a  husband,  their  feet 
alone  being  visible.  She  picked  out  a  beautiful 
pair  of  feet  and  thought  that  they  could  belong 
to  none  other  than  Balder,  but  she  was  deceived. 
They  were  the  feet  of  Njord,  and  he  became  her 
husband. 

Tyr  is  the  god  of  martial  honor — brave,  val- 
orous, intrepid,  wise.  He  is  all  courage  and  faith- 
fulness, a  worthy  son  of  Odin. 

Vidar  is  the  son  of  Odin  and  the  giantess 
Grid.  This  god  rivals  in  strength  Thor  himself. 
He  has  an  iron  shoe  which  is  very  thick,  the  ma- 
terial for  which  has  been  gathered  through  all 
the  ages.    Waste  scraps  of  leather  have  been  util- 

34 


398 


DEPARTED  GODS. 


ized  in  making  this  shoe.  The  shoemaker  confers 
a  benefit  on  the  gods,  who  throws  away  pieces 
of  leather  whereby  this  wonderful  shoe  can  be 
kept  in  repair.  Vidar  is  surnamed  the  Silent, 
and  represents  the  wild  desert  and  impenetrable 


TYR,  SON  OF  ODIN  AND  FRIGG. 

forest,  all  untrodden  by  man.  Vidar  and  Vale 
alone  survive  the  general  destruction  at  the  last 
day.     Vale  is  a  valiant  warrior. 

Uller  is  the  son  of  Sif  and  the  stepson  of 
Thor.  He  is  skillful  in  the  use  of  the  bow,  swift 
on  his  snow-skates,  beautiful  in  person,  and  a 
great  warrior.  He  dwells  in  his  mansion  called 
Ydaler  or  "Valleys  of  Rain." 


HODS  AND  XO  fiODS.  399 


"  Hoder  hight  one  of  the  asas,  who  is  blind, 
hut  exceedingly  strong;  and  the  gods  would  wish 
that  this  asa  never  needed  to  be  named,  for  the 
work  of  his  hand  will  long  be  kept  in  memory 
both  by  gods  and  men."  We  have  seen  how 
he  became  the  innocent  cause  of  the  death  of 
Balder. 

Two  goddesses  whose  names  have  been 
omitted  are  worthy  of  mention.  Gefjun  is  a 
maid,  and  all  who  die  unmarried  become  her  serv- 
ants. She  afforded  pleasure  to  King  Gylfe  of 
Sweden,  and  received  in  return  as  much  land  as 
she  could  plow  with  four  oxen  in  one  whole  day. 
She  put  four  oxen  from  Jotunheim — they  were  her 
sons  by  a  giant — before  the  plow.  They  made 
a  deep  furrow,  and,  tearing  up  the  land,  drew  it 
westward ;  and  the  goddess  gave  it,  in  its  new 
position,  the  name  of  Zealand.  She  doubtless  is 
the  goddess  of  agriculture.  Eir  is  a  goddess  of 
whom  we  have  little  knowledge,  except  that  she 
is  well  skilled  in  the  healing  art. 

iEger  is  the  god  of  the  wild,  raging,  deep 
sea.  He  possesses  a  hall  of  bright  gold,  where 
he  entertains  the  gods.  Ran,  his  wife,  catches 
those  who  venture  far  out  to  sea  in  her  net.  The 
waves  are  her  nine  daughters.  They  have  pale 
locks,  wear  white  veils,  rejoice  when  the  wind 
blows  most  fiercely,  lash  the  sounding  shores,  and 


400  DEPARTED  GODS. 

play  around  the  rocky  islands,  or,  in  calm  weather, 
sleep  upon  the  stones  and  rocks  beneath  the 
waters.  iEger  wears  a  helmet  of  dense  dark- 
ness and  awful  breakers,  and  Ran  is  the  plun- 
derer of  the  deep — the  daughters  are  the  most 
happy  in  the  most  dangerous  storm. 

Njord  is  a  van  born  and  bred  in  Vanaheim, 
but  given  to  the  asas  as  a  hostage  in  exchange 
for  Honer.  Thus  peace  was  re-established  be- 
tween the  asas  and  the  vans.  Njord  is  god  of 
the  sea,  of  fishing,  and  of  commerce,  and  is  es- 
pecially invoked  by  fishermen  and  sailors.  He 
dwells. in  a  heavenly  region,  Noatun,  rules  the 
winds  and  the  tempests,  and  checks  the  fury  of 
the  raging  conflagration.  We  have  seen  how  he 
married  Skade,  the  daughter  of  the  giant  Thjasse. 
She  loves  the  rocky  mountains  of  Thrymheim, 
"  the  roaring  home,  at  the  thundering  watejfall." 
By  agreement,  Njord  and  Skade  dwell  nine  nights 
in  Thrymheim  and  then  three  in  Noatun.  This 
god  ruled  over  many  temples  and  high  places, 
and  possessed  vast  wealth,  which  he  could  confer 
on  his  worshipers. 

Njord  has  two  children — Frey  and  Freyja. 
Frey  is  the  god  of  rain  and  sunshine  and  of  all 
the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and,  like  his  father,  dis- 
penses among  men  riches  and  peace.  In  his 
ealry  boyhood  the  gods  made  him  a  present  of 


QODS  AND  NO-GODS.  401 

Alfheim,  the  home  of  the  elves.  His  ship  Skid- 
bladner,  made  by  the  sons  of  Ivald,  has  been 
mentioned.  It  was  so  large  that  all  the  gods, 
with  their  weapons  and  war-stores,  could  find  ac- 
commodation therein.  Frey  had  a  fine  reputa- 
tion among  the  gods.     Njord  could  boast: 

"It  is  my  consolation — 
For  I  was  from  a  far-off  place, 
Sent  as  a  hostage  to  the  gods — 
That  I  begat  that  son 
Whom  no  one  hates, 
And  who  is  regarded 
Chief  among  the  gods." 

And  Tyr  says : 

"  Frey  is  the  best 
Of  all  the  chiefs 
Among  the  gods. 
He  causes  not  tears 
To  maids  or  mothers ; 
His  desire  is  to  loosen  the  fetters 
Of  those  enchained." 

Frey  was  extensively  worshiped  in  all  North- 
ern countries,  received  many  sacrifices,  and  had 
many  temples  and  images.  "  On  Jul-eve  (Christ- 
mas eve)  it  was  customary  to  lead  out  a  boar, 
which  was  consecrated  to  Frey,  and  which  was 
called  the  atonement  boar.  On  this  the  persons 
present  laid  their  hands,  and  made  solemn  vows ; 
and  at  the  feast,  where  the  flesh  of  the  sacri- 


402  DEPARTED  GODS. 

ficed  animal  was  eaten  by  the  assembled  guests, 
there  was  drunk,  among  other  horns,  a  horn  to 
Njord  and  Frey  for  prosperous  seasons  and  for 
peace."  There  are  still  survivals  of  these  pagan 
sacrifices. 

"A  highly-valued  wooden  statue  or  image  of 
Frey  was  found  in  a  temple  at  Trondhjem,  which 
King  Olaf  Tryggvesson  hewed  in  pieces  in  the 
presence  of  the  people.  Kjotve  the  Rich,  king 
of  Agder  in  Norway,  one  of  the  chiefs  who 
fought  against  Harald  Fairhair,  had  a  weight 
upon  which  the  god  Frey  was  sculptured  in 
silver.  This  treasure,  which  he  held  in  great 
veneration,  fell,  after  the  battle,  into  the  hands 
of  King  Harald,  and  he  presented  it  to  his 
friend,  the  chieftain  Ingemund  Thorstenson,  who 
afterwards  carried  the  image  in  a  purse,  and 
held  it  in  very  high  esteem.  This  last-mentioned 
image  was  probably  borne  as  an  amulet,  as  was 
often  the  case,  no  doubt,  with  the  gold  bracteates 
which  are  found  in  the  grave-hows  and  in  the 
earth,  having  upon  them  the  images  of  men  and 
animals,  and  which  are  furnished  with  a  clasp  for 
fastening  to  a  necklace."* 

Frey  one  day  sat  in  Hlidskjalf,  and  looking 
away  to  Jotunheim,  saw  a  maid  enter  a  large 
palace,  and  as  she  raised  the  latch  of  the  door, 

*  Anderson,  Norse  Mythology,  p.  363. 


404  DEPARTED  GODS. 

all  worlds  were  illuminated  by  the  matchless 
radiancy  of  her  hand.  The  god  was  enamored, 
and  upon  inquiry  found  that  the  wonderful 
maiden  was  Gerd,  a  daughter  of  Gymer  and 
Aurboda,  who  were  relatives  of  Thjasse.  He 
sent  his  messenger  Skirner  to  press  for  him  his 
suit,  who  won  the  heart  of  the  maiden;  not, 
however,  without  the  employment  of  irresistible 
incantations,  in  which  he  seems  to  have  been 
well  skilled.  Many  Norse  romances  are  con- 
nected with  this  story  of  Frey  and  Gerd.  The 
most  celebrated  is  the  Nibelungen  Lay.  That 
charming  favorite  of  the  children,  "Sleeping 
Beauty,"  may  be  placed  in  the  same  class.* 

Freyja  is  the  sister  of  Frey,  and  is  the  god- 
dess of  love.  From  her  mansion  Sessrymner, 
she  rides  forth  in  a  car  drawn  by  two  cats. 
She  married  Oder,  by  whom  she  had  two  daugh- 
ters— Hnos  and  Gerseme,  beautiful  and  precious. 
Her  husband,  wishing  to  travel  abroad,  left  her, 
and  since  that  time  she  continually  weeps,  and 
her  tears  are  drops  of  pure  gold.  She  is  a  god- 
dess of  great  beauty,  grace,  modesty,  and  purity. 
The  most  beautiful  things  are  named  after  her. 
Not  only  is  gold  called  her  "tears"  or  the 
"rain"   of  her  brows  and    cheeks,  but  also  the 

*Forestier,  Echoes  from  Mist-land;  Introduction,  pp. 
xliii-xlvii. 


GODS  AND  NO-GODS.  405 

most  beautiful  flowers  are  named  from  her  hair 
and  eye-dew,  and  the  butterfly  is  "  Freyja's  hen." 
She  gives  name  to  Friday,  as  Tyr  to  Tuesday, 
Odin  to  Wednesday,  and  Thor  to  Thursday. 
Freyja  rides  to  the  field  of  battle,  and  claims  h;ilf 
of  the  slain. 

"  Folkvang  'tis  called, 
Where  Freyja  has  right 
To  dispose  of  the  hall-seats. 
Every  day  of  the  slain 
She  chooses  the  half, 
And  leaves  half  to  Odin." 

The  Scandinavian  race,  like  every  other, 
struggled  with  the  problem  of  evil,  but  struggled 
in  vain.  At  first  they  may  have  thought  only 
of  physical  evil,  but  soon  their  attention  was 
directed  to  moral  evil.  The  darkest  spiritual 
evil  is  represented  in  Utgard-Loke.  Asa-Loke 
"is  the  same  evil  principle  in  all  its  various 
manifestations;  but,  as  he  makes  his  appearance 
among  the  gods,  he  represents  evil  in  the  seduc- 
tive and  seemingly  beautiful  form  in  which  it 
glides  about  through  the  world.  We  find  him 
flowing  in  the  veins  of  the  human  race,  and  call 
him  sin,  or  passion.  In  nature  he  is  the  cor- 
rupting element  in  air,  fire,  and  water.  In  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  he  is  the  volcanic  flame, 
in  the  sea  he  appears  as  the  fierce  serpent,  and 

35 


406  DEPARTED  QODS. 

in  the  lower  world  we  recognize  him  as  pale 
death."* 

We  have  seen  how  Loke  procured  the  death 
of  Balder.  In  like  manner,  by  his  strength  and 
deceit,  in  connection  with  the  jotuns,  he  brought 
the  gods  into  peril  time  and  again,  though  the 
evil  which  he  intended  was  frequently  overruled 
for  good. 

Loke  had  not  been  evil  from  the  first.  He 
was  one  of  the  second  trinity,  and,  under  the 
name  of  Loder,  assisted  Odin  and  Honer  in  the 
creation  of  man. 

From  Augerbode,  a  mighty  giantess  of  Jotun- 
heim,  Loke  had  three  monstrous  children — the 
Fenris-wolf,  the  Midgard-serpent,  and  Hel. 
When  the  gods  learned  of  the  existence  of  these 
monsters,  mortal  terror  seized  upon  the  court  of 
Asgard.  The  three  children  were  brought  from 
Jotunheim,  and  their  destruction  decreed.  The 
Midgard-serpent  was  cast  headlong  into  the  sea, 
but  soon  grew  to  such  a  size  as  to  encircle  the 
whole  earth.  Hel  was  cast  into  Niflheim,  but 
there  extended  her  influence  till  she  ruled  over 
nine  worlds.  "Her  hall  is  called  Elvidner, 
'place  of  storm;'  hunger  is  her  table,  starvation 
her  knife,  delay  her  man-servant,  slowness  her 
maid-servant,  precipice  her   threshold,   care  her 

*  Anderson,  Norse  Mythology,  p.  372. 


OODS  AND  NO-GODS.  407 

bed,  and  burning  anguish  forms  the  hangings  of 
her  apartments.  The  one-half  of  her  body  is 
livid,  the  other  half  the  color  of  human 
flesh 

The  gods  endeavored  to  bind  the  Fenris-wolf, 
but  he  broke  every  chain,  though  made  of  the 
toughest  iron.  At  last  the  dwarfs  made  a  chain 
called  Gleipner,  of  cunning  workmanship.  It 
was  wrought  of  "the  noise  made  by  the  foot- 
step of  a  cat,  the  beard  of  a  woman,  the  roots  of 
the  mountains,  the  sinews  of  the  bear,  the  breath 
of  the  fish,  and  the  spittle  of  birds."  The  wolf 
now  refused  to  be  bound.  Tyr  at  length  placed 
his  hand  in  his  mouth  as  a  pledge  that  the  gods 
would  release  him  in  case  he  should  fail  to  break 
the  chain.  The  wolf  now  consented,  and  Wftfl 
bound.  He  struggled  in  vain  to  free  himself. 
The  gods  had  him  within  their  power,  but  Tyr 
lost  one  hand.  They  then  bound  him  to  two 
great  rocks,  fixed  deep  in  the  earth,  and  placed 
a  fierce  sword  between  his  open  jaws. 

The  Fenris-wolf  is  interpreted  to  mean  con- 
suming fire,  the  Midgard-serpent  is  the  stormy 
sea,  and  Hel  is  death. 

When  iEger  entertained  the  gods  at  a  ban- 
quet, as  we  have  already  mentioned,  all  were 
present  save  Thor,  who  was  away  fighting  trolls. 

•Audir.snii,  None  Mythology,  pp.  382,  383. 


408  DEPARTED  GODS. 

The  servants  are  praised  for  their  attentiveness, 
but  this  excites  the  wrath  of-  Loke,  who  slays 
one  of  the  number,  and  flees  to  the  woods.  He 
soon  returns,  and  begins  to  abuse  the  other  gods. 

"Thirsty  I  hither 
To  the  hall  came — 
Long  way  I  journeyed — 
The  gods  to  ask 
Whether  one  would  grant  me 
A  drink  of  the  precious  mead. 

Why  are  ye  silent,  gods, 
And  sit  so  stubborn? 
Have  ye  lost  your  tongues? 
Give  me  a  seat 
And  place  at  the  banquet, 
Or  turn  me  away." 

He  continues  his  abuse,  and  before  he  drinks 
the  mead,  the  mountains  quake  and  tremble.  It 
is  the  footsteps  of  Thor,  who  soon  enters  the 
hall,  and  threatens  to  crush  every  bone  in  Loke's 
body.  With  an  awful  curse  upon  iEger,  Loke 
flees,  and  hides  himself  in  the  mountains.  A 
house  is  built,  with  every  side  open,  so  that  he 
may  watch  the  approach  of  the  offended  gods. 
During  the  daytime  he  changes  into  the  form  of 
a  salmon,  and  hides  under  the  waters  of  a  cas- 
cade. One  day  while  Odin  was  seated  in  lofty 
Hlidskjalf,  he  discovered  Loke  knitting  flax  and 
yarn  into  a  fish-net,  and  the  gods  came  upon  him 


GODS  AND  NO-OODS.  409 

so  suddenly  that  ho  had  barely  time  to  throw 
the  net  into  the  fire  and  escape.  Kvaser  the 
Wise  discovers  in  the  ashes-  the  traces  of  the 
net,  and  the  gods  are  enabled  to  knit  one  after 
the  same  pattern.  They  fish  for  Loke,  for,  in 
the  form  of  a  salmon,  he  has  taken  his  hiding- 
place  in  the  water.  With  much  difficulty  Thor 
at  length  catches  him  in  his  hand,  as  he  attempts 
to  leap  over  the  net.  He  is  caught  in  his  own 
device. 

They  drag  him  into  a  cavern,  wherein  they 
have  placed  three  pointed  rocks.  They  bore  a 
hole  into  each  of  these  rocks.  They  seize  his 
children — Vale  and  Nare.  They  change  Vale 
into  a  wolf,  and  compel  him  to  tear  in  pieces 
and  devour  his  brother.  They  make  bands  of 
the  intestines,  with  which  they  bind  the  evil  god 
to  the  points  of  the  rocks.  The  giantess  Skade 
suspends  a  serpent  over  him,  so  that  the  venom 
falls  full  into  his  face,  drop  by  drop.  His  wife, 
Sigyn,  faithful  to  him  in  his  misfortune,  catches 
the  venom  in  a  cup,  which  she  empties  when 
filled;  but  while  she  empties  the  cup,  the  drops 
fall  on  Loke,  and  he  shrieks  with  anguish,  and 
twists  his  body  in  his  agony  so  that  the  whole 
earth  quakes.  There  this  evil  god — so  terrible 
a  character  that  the  Black  Death  of  the  four- 
teenth  century  assumed  his  form  in  the  minds 


410  DEPARTED  GODS. 

of  the  Norsemen — there  he  will  remain  till  the 
End. 

•.  We  have  named  several  lesser  objects  of 
superstition,  and  they  deserve  further  attention. 
Both  giants  and  dwarfs  shun  the  light  of  day, 
and  turn  into  stone  at  its  approach.  Dwarfs  are 
deformed  and  diminutive,  dusky,  and  coarsely 
clad — "a  little  black  man,"  "a  little  gray  man." 
The  women  spin  and  weave;  the  men  are  smiths. 
In  Norway,  rock-crystals  are  called  dwarf-stones, 
and  certain  stones  in  Denmark  are  called  dwarf- 
hammers.  The  dwarfs  are  extremely  rich,  and 
have  fine  dwellings,  decorated  with  crystal  and 
gold.  They  are  neighborly  and  obliging,  bu,t  will 
lame  cattle  and  steal,  and  even  carry  to  their 
homes  young  maidens. 

In  Iceland  they  use  for  their  dwellings  rocks, 
hills,  and  even  seas.  They  keep  their  homes 
neat,  and  all  their  domestic  utensils  clean  and 
orderly.  In  Shetland  the  Trows  are  small,  and 
usually  dressed  in  gay  green  garments.  When 
they  travel,  they  ride  on  bulrushes  through  the 
air.  "If  a  person  should  happen  to  meet  them 
when  on  these  journeys,  he  should,  if  he  has  not 
a  Bible  in  his  pocket,  draw  a  circle  round  him 
on  the  ground,  and  in  God's  name,  forbid  their 
approach." 

The  white  elves  are  fair  and   lively,  dwell  in 


GODS  AND  NO-GODS.  411 

the  air,  aance  in  circles  on  the  wet  grass,  and 
sit  on  the  leaves  of  the  trees.  Certain  trees 
which  they  are  thought  to  frequent  are  protected 
as  something  sacred.  The  dark  elves  are  bad 
and  mischievous.  They  cause  diseases  among 
cattle,  called  elf-fire  or  elf-shot.  Their  exhala- 
tions are  injurious.  If  at  midnight  any  one  en- 
ters within  the  circle  of  the  Swedish  elves,  they 
play  him  all  kinds  of  pranks.  They  often  sit  on 
small  stones,  which  are  hollowed  in  circular 
form,  and  called  elf-querns  or  millstones.  The 
hill-people  dwell  in  hills  and  caves.  Their  soft, 
sweet  music,  dull  and  mournful  in  sound,  may 
sometimes  be  heard.  Norse  fiddlers  sometimes 
play  the  tunes.  If,  however,  they  play  the  elf- 
king's  tune,  all  objects,  animate  and  inanimate, 
begin  to  dance,  and  can  not  stop  unless  the  tune 
is  played  backwards,  or  the  fiddle-strings  are  cut 
to  stop  the  music. 

The  inhabitants  of  Riigen  believe  in  three 
kinds  of  dwarfs — the  white,  the  brown,  and  the 
black. 

"The  white  are  the  most  delicate  and  beautiful 
of  all,  and  are  of  an  innocent  and  gentle  dispo- 
sition. During  the  winter,  when  the  face  of  na- 
ture  is  cold,  raw,  and  cheerless,  they  remain  still 
and  quiet  in  their  hills,  solely  engaged  in  the 
fashioning  of  the  finest  works  in  silver  and  gold, 


412  DEPARTED  GODS. 

of  too  delicate' a  texture  for  mortal  eyes  to  dis- 
cern. Thus  they  pass  the  winter ;  but  no  sooner 
does  the  spring  return  than  they  abandon  their 
recesses,  and  live  through  all  the  summer  above 
ground,  in  sunshine  and  starlight,  in  uninter- 
rupted revelry  and  enjoyment.  The  moment  the 
trees  and  flowers  begin  to  sprout  and  bud  in 
the  early  days  of  spring,  they  emerge  from  the 
hills,  and  get  among  the  stocks  and  branches,  and 
thence  to  the  blossoms  and  flowers,  where  they 
sit  and  gaze  around  them.  In  the  night,  when 
mortals  sleep,  the  White  Dwarfs  come  forth,  and 
dance  their  joyous  roundels  in  the  green  grass, 
about  the  hills  and  brooks  and  springs,  making 
the  sweetest  and  most  delicate  music,  bewilder- 
ing travelers,  who  hear  and  wonder  at  the  strains 
of  the  invisible  musicians.  They  may,  if  they 
will,  go  out  by  day,  but  never  in  company ; 
these  daylight  rambles  being  allowed  them  only 
when  alone  and  under  some  assumed  form.  They 
therefore  frequently  fly  about  in  the  shape  of 
party-colored  little  birds,  or  butterflies,  or  snow- 
white  doves,  showing  kindness  and  benevolence 
to  the  good  who  merit  their  favor. 

The  Brown  Dwarfs,  the  next  in  order,  are 
less  than  eighteen  inches  high.  They  wear  little 
brown  coats  and  jackets,  and  a  brown  cap  on 
their  head,  with  a  little  silver  bell  in  it.     Some 


OODS  AND  NO-GODS.  413 

of  them  wear  black  shoes,  with  red  strings  in 
them  ;  in  general,  however,  they  wear  fine  glass 
ones ;  at  their  dances  none  of  them  wear  any 
other.  They  are  very  handsome  in  their  per- 
sons, with  clear,  light-colored  eyes,  and  small 
and  most  beautiful  hands  and  feet.  They  are, 
on  the  whole,  of  a  cheerful,  good-natured  dispo- 
sition, mingled  with  some  roguish  traits.  Like 
the  White  Dwarfs,  they  are  great  artists  in  gold 
and  silver,  working  so  curiously  as  to  astonish 
those  who  happen  to  see  their  performances. 
At  night  they  come  out  of  their  hills  and  dance 
by  the  light  of  the  moon  and  stars.  They  also 
glide  invisibly  into  people's  houses,  their  caps 
rendering  them  imperceptible  by  all  who  have 
not  similar  caps.  They  are  said  to  play  all 
kinds  of  tricks,  to  change  the  children  in  the 
cradles,  and  take  them  away.  This  charge  is 
perhaps  unfounded ;  but  certainly  children  who 
fall  into  their  hauds  must  serve  them  for  fifty 
years.  They  possess  an  unlimited  power  of 
transformation,  and  can  pass  through  the  smallest 
key-holes.  Frequently  they  bring  with  them 
presents  for  children,  or  lay  gold  rings  and 
ducats,  and  the  like,  in  their  way,  and  often  are 
invisibly  present,  and  save  them  from  the  perils 
of  fire  and  water.  They  plague  and  annoy  lazy 
men-servants    and   untidy    maids  with  frightful 


414  DEPARTED  GODS. 

dreams ;  oppress  them  as  the  nightmare ;  bite 
them  as  fleas;  and  scratch  and  tear  them  like 
cats  and  dogs ;  and  often  in  the  night  frighten, 
in  the  shape  of  owls,  thieves,  and  lovers,  or,  like 
will-o'-the-wisps,  lead  them  astray  into  bogs  and 
marshes,  and  perhaps  up  to  those  who  are  in 
pursuit  of  them. 

The  Black  Dwarfs  wear  black  jackets  and 
caps,  are  not  handsome  like  the  others,  but,  on 
the  contrary  are  horribly  ugly,  with  weeping 
eyes,  like  blacksmiths  and  colliers.  They  are 
most  expert  workmen,  especially  in  steel,  to 
which  they  can  give  a  degree  at  once  of  hard- 
ness and  flexibility  which  no  human  smith  can 
imitate ;  for  the  swords  they  make  will  bend  like 
rushes,  and  are  as  hard  as  diamonds.  In  old 
times  arms  •  and  armor  made  by  them  were  in 
great  request;  shirts  of  mail  manufactured  by 
them  were  as  fine  as  cobwebs,  and  yet  no  bullet 
would  penetrate  them,  and  no  helm  or  corselet 
could  resist  the  swords  they  fashioned  ;  but  all 
these  things    are   now  gone  out  of  use. 

These  Dwarfs  are  of  a  malicious,  ill  disposi- 
tion, and  delight  in  doing  mischief  to  mankind ; 
they  are  unsocial,  and  there  are  seldom  more 
than  two  or  three  of  them  seen  together ;  they 
keep  mostly  in  their  hills,  and  seldom  come  out 
in  the  daytime,  nor  do  they  ever  go  far  from  home. 


GODS  AXD  NO-GODS.  41". 

People  say  that  in  the  summer  they  are  fond  of  sit- 
ting under  the  elder-trees,  the  smell  of  which  is 
very  grateful  to  them,  and  that  any  one  that  wants 
anything  of  them  must  go  there  and  call  them. 
Some  say  they  have  no  music  and  dancing,  only 
howling  and  whimpering ;  and  that  when  a  scream- 
ing is  heard  in  the  woods  and  marshes,  like  that 
of  crying  children,  and  a  mewing  and  screeching, 
like  that  of  a  multitude  of  cats  or  owls,  the 
sounds  proceed  from  their  midnight  assemblies) 
and  are  made  by  the  vociferous  Dwarfs."* 

The  nisse  is  in  the  form  of  a  child  with  the 
face  of  an  old  man.  If  maids  and  men  can 
make  him  a  friend  in  the  farm-house,  everything 
will  prosper.  The  stromkarl  is  a  great  musi- 
cian at  whose  music  trees  dance  and  water-falls 
stay  their  course.  The  merman  dwells  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  or  near  the  shore  in  rocky 
cliffs.  The  mermaid  is  most  beautiful  in  appear- 
ance, and  has  enticed  many  a  fisherman  and  many 
a  mariner  to  her  lonely  dwelling. 

"  The  neck  is  the  river-spirit.  Sometimes  he 
is  represented  as  sitting  during  the  summer  nights 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  like  a  pretty  little 
boy  with  golden  hair  hanging  in  ringlets,  and  a 
red  cap  on  his  head ;  sometimes  as  above  the 
water,  like  a  handsome  young  man,  but  beneath 

*Keightkv,  Fairy  Mythology,  pp.  174-176. 


416  DEPARTED  GODS. 

like  a  horse ;  at  other  times  as  an  old  man  with 
a  long  beard,  out  of  which  he  rings  the  water  as 
he  sits  on  the  cliffs.  The  neck  is  very  severe 
against  any  haughty  maiden  who  makes  an  ill  re- 
turn to  the  love  of  her  wooer ;  but  should  he 
himself  fall  in  love  with  a  maid  of  human  kind, 
he  is  the  most  polite  and  attentive  suitor  in  the 
world.  The  neck  is  also  a  great  musician ;  he 
sits  on  the  water,  and  plays  on  his  gold  harp, 
the  harmony  of  which  operates  on  all  nature. 
To  learn  music  of  him,  a  person  must  present 
him  with  a  black  lamb,  and  also  promise  him  res- 
urrection and  redemption."  * 

These  little  people  are  found  under  various 
names,  throughout  Germany,  but  are  there  more 
kindly  and,  we  may  almost  say,  more  Christian. 
Otherwise  they  differ  little  from  those  in  the 
north.  The  little  wights  are  especially  numer- 
ous in  Southern  Germany.  They  are  about  three 
quarters  of  an  ell  high,  and  are  represented  as 
old  men  with  long  beards.  They  haunt  the 
mines,  dressed  as  miners  and  provided  with  lan- 
terns, mallets,  and  hammers.  They  do  no  injury 
while  they  are  treated  well,  yet  they  sometimes 
find  amusement  in  pelting  the  miners  with  small 
stones.  They  appear  to  be  very  busy  in  all 
kinds  of  work  connected  with  the  mines.     They 

*  Anderson,  Norse  Mythology,  pp.  203,  204. 


GODS  AND  NO-GODS.  417 

show  themselves  especially  where  there  is  abun- 
dance of  ore,  and  miners  who  are  wise  are  ahvavs 
glad  to  see  them  and  to  make  them  their  friends. 

The  conquerors  of  Great  Britain  brought  their 
inheritance  of  religious  ideas  which  lived  long  in 
their  new  home.  We  meet  with  frequent  men- 
tion of  little  people  of  various  names. 

A  pious  curate  was  annoyed  near  Chippen- 
ham while  coming  home  in  the  night.  The 
writer  of  the  account  says :  "  Comming  over  the 
downes,  it  being  near  darke,  and  approaching  one 
of  the  faiery  dances,  as  the  common  people  call 
them  in  these  parts,  viz.,  the  greene  circles  made 
by  those  spirits  on  the  grasse,  he  all  at  once 
saw  an  innumerable  quantitie  of  pigmies,  or  very 
small  people,  dancing  rounde  and  rounde,  and 
singing  and  making  all  maner  of  small,  odd 
noyses.  He,  being  very  greatly  amazed,  and  yet 
not  being  able,  as  he  says,  to  run  away  from 
them,  being,  as  he  supposes,  kept  there  in  a  kinde 
of  enchantment,  they  no  sooner  perceave  him 
but  they  surround  him  on  all  sides,  and  what 
betwixte  feare  and  amazement  he  fell  down, 
scarcely  knowing  what  he  did ;  and  thereupon 
these  little  creatures  pinched  him  all  over,  and 
made  a  quick  humming  noyse  all  the  tyme ;  but 
at  length  they  left  him,  and  when  the  sun  rose 
he  found  himself  exactly  in  the  midst  of  one  of 


418  DEPARTED  GODS. 

these  faiery  dances.  This  relation  I  had  from 
him  myselfe  a  few  days  after  he  was  so  tor- 
mented ;  but  when  I  and  my  bed-fellow,  Stump, 
wente  soon  afterwards,  at  night  time,  to  the  dances 
on  the  downes,  we  sawe  none  .of  the  elves  or 
faieries.  But,  indeed,  it  is  saide,  they  seldom  ap- 
peare  to  any  persons  who  go  to  seeke  for 
them."  * 

The  fairies  have  found  their  way  into  English 
poetry,  and  receive  just  treatment,  except  where 
the  poet  is  too  much  tied  to  classic  mythology. 
It  is  concerning  the  Pixies  that  Brown  writes  in 
Britannia's  Pastorals: 

"  Near  to  the  wood  there  lay  a  pleasant  mead, 
Where  fairies  often  did  their  measures  tread, 
Which  in  the  meadows  made  such  circles  green, 
As  if  with  garlands  it  had  crowned  been ; 
Or  like  the  circle  where  the  signs  w.e  track, 
And  learned  shepherds  call't  the  zodiac; 
Within  one  of  these  rounds  was  to  be  seen 
A  hillock  rise,  where  oft  the  fairy-queen 
At  twilight  sate,  and  did  command  her  elves 
To  pinch  those  maids  that  had  not  swept  their  shelves ; 
And,  further,  if,  by  maiden's  oversight, 
Within  doors  water  was  not  brought  at  night, 
Or  if  they  spread  no  table,  set  no  bread, 
They  should  have  nips  from  toe  unto  the  head  ; 
And  for  the  maid  who  had  performed  each  thing, 
She  in  the  water-pail  bade  leave  a  ring." 


*Keightley,  Fairy  Mythology,  pp.  292,  293. 


GODS  AND  NO-GODS.  419 

Shakspcarc  makes  a  fairy  ask  Puck : 

"Are  you  not  he 
That  frights  the  maidens  of  the  villagery, 
Skims  milk,  and  sometimes  labors  in  the  quorn. 
And  bootless  makes  the  breathless  housewife  churn  ; 
And  sometimes  makes  the  drink  to  bear  no  barm  ; 
Misleads  night- wanderers,  laughing  at  their  harm; 
Those  that  hobgoblin  call  you,  and  sweet  Puck, 
You  do  their  work,  and  they  shall  have  good  luck — 
Are  you  not  he?" 

These  various  airy  creatures  of  popular  be- 
lief are  not  all  small  people.  Some  are  repre- 
sented as  quite  human  in  size,  and  frequently 
form  matrimonial  alliances  with  the  race  of  men. 
The  permanency  of  these  alliances  depends  upon 
some  secret  or  obedience  to  some  request  which 
generally  leads  to  a  disastrous  end.  Children 
who  are  the  fruit  of  such  marriages  sometimes 
also  have  an  unfortunate  career.  Human  beings 
entrapped  by  the  fairy  folk  and  carried  to  their 
abodes  are  well  treated,  and  are  not  without  op- 
portunities of  breaking  the  enchantment  which 
holds  them,  and  regaining  their  freedom.  Most 
of  these  strange  beings  are  invisible  to  mortal 
eyes,  except  when  they  choose  to  make  themselves 
otherwise.  They  are  industrious  and  helpful 
when  well  treated,  and  when  they  borrow  they 
never  fail  to  return.  They  hold  their  promises 
sacred,  and  always  speak  the  truth.     They  pos- 


420  DEPARTED  GODS. 

sess  immense  wealth  and  many  wonder-working 
charms.  They  give  freely,  and  any  trifle  re- 
ceived from  them  is  sure  to  possess  great  value. 
To  secure  any  article  belonging  to  a  fairy  places 
the  little  wight  within  the  power  of  the  one  who 
keeps  the  treasure.  They  seem  not  to  be  im- 
mortal, but  to  live  to  a  great  age — perhaps  thou- 
sands of  years.  They  have  great  power  over 
nature,  and  are  endowed  with  great  wisdom.  A 
man  may  see  them  if  he  can  get  one  of  their 
caps  and  put  it  on  his  head,  or  if  he  puts  a  four- 
leaf  clover  in  his  own  cap.  When  several  per- 
sons stand  near  the  fairy  ring  while  the  little 
people  are  dancing,  if  one  place  his  foot  at  the 
edge  of  the  ring,  and  the  next  place  his  foot  on 
this  one,  and  so  on  till  all  are  thus  joined  foot  to 
foot,  the  fairies  become  visible.  The  unwary 
who  gets  inside  the  ring  is  within  their  power 
and  rendered  invisible;  and  they  compel  him  to 
dance  till  exhausted,  or  pinch  his  body  till  black 
and  blue,  or  play  him  some  other  uncanny  trick. 
A  certain  salve — which  not  only  the  fairies  but 
certain  "wise  women"  can  make — placed  upon 
the  eyes  makes  the  Vision  so  clear  that  the  little 
people  can  be  seen  quite  easily.  But  he  who 
possesses  this  power  of  sight  must  not  recognize 
any  inhabitant  of  the  fairy  world,  for  a  breath  from 
one  of  these  strange  beings  will  make  him  blind. 


GODS  AND  NO-GODS.  421 

According  to  story,  there  are  few  fuiries  now 
in  the  countries  where  they  were  formerly  so 
numerous.  The  sound  of  church-bells  has  com- 
pelled them  to  emigrate — and  whither  they  have 
gone,  none  can  tell. 

36 


IV. 

THE   DOOM    OF  THE    UNIVERSE. 

THE  scenes  of  Ragnarok,  "the  twilight  of 
the  gods,"  the  destruction  of  the  world  and 
the  regeneration  of  gods  and  men,  are  grand, 
awful,  and  gigantic  beyond  description.  The 
giant  Ymer  gave  birth  to  the  gods,  and  they 
must  die.  The  germ  of  death  grows,  and  their 
strength  wastes  away.  The  conflict  between  the 
gods  and  the  giants,  which  has  been  waged  so 
long,  must  have  an  end.  The  warfare  so  evi- 
dent in  nature  and  in  the  soul  of  man  must 
cease.  Good,  and  not  evil,  must  triumph  at  last. 
Nothing  less  than  this  will  fully  satisfy  the 
Gothic  faith. 

The  last  days  shall  be  days  of  evil  times. 
Depravity  shall  become  of  a  deeper  dye;  crime 
and  terror  shall  stalk  abroad  over  the  earth,  and 
war  shall  glut  his  ravenous  appetite  to  the  full. 
There  shall  be  snow,  frosts,  piercing  winds,  tem- 
pests, and  clouded  suns  through  three  Fimbul- 
winters,  with  no  summer.  During  three  other 
similar    winters    war    and    discord    shall    rage. 

422 


TBE  DOOM  OF  THE  UNIVERSE.  423 

Brothers   shall    murder   brothers,  children  their 
mothers,  and  fathers  their  sons. 

"Brothers  slay  brothers; 
Sisters'  children 
Shed  each  other's  blood. 
Hard  is  the  world ; 
Sensual  siu  grows  huge. 
There  are  sword-ages,  ax-ages; 
Shields  are  cleft  in  twain; 
Storm-ages,   murder-ages, 
Till  the  world  falls  dead, 
And  men  no  longer  spare 
Of  pity  one  another." 

Things  shall  go  on  from  bad  to  worse.  The 
savage  Fenris-wolf  shall  devour  the  sun,  and 
Mnongarm  shall  swallow  up  the  moon.  All 
the  bright  stars  shall  be  hurled  from  heaven. 
The  earth  shall  be  so  frightfully  shaken  that  all 
trees  shall  be  torn  from  their  roots,  all  mount- 
ains fall  headlong  from  their  everlasting  bases, 
and  all  bonds  and  fetters  be  snapped  asunder. 

And  now  the  Midgard-serpent  is  loose,  and 
has  gained  the  land.  Writhing  in  his  course,  he 
has  caused  the  sea  to  rush  over  the  earth.  The 
Fenris-wolf  is  also  loose.  The  ship  Naglfar,  or 
"Nailship,"  constructed  of  the  nails  of  dead 
men,  floats  on  the  waters.  The  giant  Hrym  is 
its  steersman.  The  Fenris-wolf  advances,  with 
mouth  opened  so  wide  that  while  his  lower  jaw 


424  DEPARTED  GODS. 

is  on  the  earth  his  upper  jaw  reaches  heaven. 
Flames  of  fire  flash  from  his  eyes  and  nostrils. 
The  Midgard-serpent  is  by  his  side,  and  vomits 
poisonous  venom,  which  fills  all  the  air  and  all 
the  waters.  The  heavens  are  rent  in  twain,  and 
on  the  path  thus  formed  ride  the  dark  sons  of 
Muspel,  in  glittering  array,  Surt  at  their  head, 
his  sword  outshining  the  sun,  a  flaming  fire  be- 
hind him  and  before.  They  resort  to  the  battle- 
field called  Vigrid;  and  Loke,  with  all  the  fol- 
lowers of  Hel,  is  there,  and  Hrym,  with  all  the 
frost-giants,  is  there. 

But  the  gods  too  are  awake.  Heimdal  blows 
his  Bias  thorn,  and  the  sound  fills  all  the  uni- 
verse. The  gods  assemble.  Odin  consults  Mimer 
at  the  fountain.  Ygdrasil,  and  all  things  on  earth 
and  in  heaven,  tremble.  The  gods  and  einherjes 
march  forth,  Odin,  with  golden  helmet,  resplen- 
dent cuirass,  and  terrible  spear,  at  their  head. 

The  world-battle  is  fought.  Surt  slays  Frey. 
The  dog  Garm  engages  Tyr,  and  they  slay  one 
another.  Thor  kills  the  Midgard-serpent,  but  is 
himself  suffocated  by  its  venom.  The  Fenris- 
wolf  swallows  Odin;  but  Vidar  comes  to  the 
rescue,  though  too  late,  and,  placing  his  foot  on 
the  wolf's  lower  jaw,  seizes  the  upper  jaw  with 
his  hands  and  rends  the  monster  in  pieces. 
Heimdal   and   Loke   slav  each  other.     Surt  fills 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 

the  world  with  fire,  the  flumes  of  which  reach  to 
heaven.  The  earth  is  consumed,  and  sinks  into 
the  sea. 

"  Thus  is  Ragnarok  !  The  great  antagonism 
pervading  the  world  is  removed  in  a  final  strug- 
gle, in  which  the  contending  powers  mutually 
destroy  each  other.  Ragnarok  is  an  outbreak  of 
all  the  chaotic  powers — a  conflict  between  them 
and  the  established  order  of  creation.  Fire, 
water,  darkness,  and  death  work  together  to  de- 
stroy the  world.  The  gods  and  their  enemies 
meet  in  a  universal,  world-embracing  wrestle  and 
duel,  and  mutually  destroy  each  other.  The 
flames  of  Surt,  the  supreme  fire-god,  complete 
the  overthrow,  and  the  last  remnant  of  the  con- 
sumed earth  sinks  into  the  ocean."* 

But  this  end  is  also  the  beginning.  The  vala 
looks  again: 

"She  sees  arise 
The  second  time, 
From  the  sea,  the  earth 
Completely  green ; 
Cascades  do  fall, 
The  eagle  soars, 
From  lofty  mounts 
Pursues  its  prey. 

The  gods  convene 
On  Ida's  plains, 


An.k-rson,  Norse  Mythology,  p.  4U7. 


426  DEPARTED  GODS. 

And  talk  of  the  powerful 
Midgard-serpent ; 
They  call  to  mind 
The  Fenris-wolf 
And  the  ancient  runes 
Of  the  mighty  Odiu. 

Then  again 
The  wonderful 
Golden  tablets 
Are  found  in  the  grass: 
In  time's  morning 
The  leader  of  the  gods 
And  Odin's  race 
Possessed  them. 

The  fields  unsown 

Yield  their  growth; 

All  ills  cease; 

Balder  comes. 

Hoder  and  Balder, 

Those  heavenly  gods, 

Dwell  together  in  Hropt's  halls. 

Conceive  ye  this,  or  not?" 

While  Surfs  fire  rages,  a  woman,  Lif  by 
name,  and  a  man,  hight  Lifthraser,  lie  ccncealed 
in  Hodmimer's  forest,  fed  by  the  early  dew. 
They  shall  give  birth  to  a  new  race. 

There  is  to  be  a  general  judgment  at  the  end 
of  all  things. 

"Then  comes  the  mighty  one 
To  the  great  judgment; 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  UNIVERSE.  4 M 

From  heaven  he  comes, 
He  who  guides  all  things — 
Judgments  he  utters; 
Strifes  he  appeases; 
Laws  he  ordains 
To  flourish  forever." 

The  last  utterance  seems  to  look  to  the  dis- 
appearance of  all  evil. 

"There  comes  the  dark 
Dragon  flying, 
The  shining  serpent 
From  the  Nida  mountains 
In  the  deep. 
Over  the  plain  it  flies ; 
Dead  bodies  Nidhug 
Drags  in  his  whizzing  plumage, — 
Now  must  Nidhug  sink."* 

Several  of  the  gods  reappear  in  the  regen- 
erate earth.  Balder  and  Hoder,  light  and  dark- 
ness, come  back  from  Hel,  and  their  sons  inhabit 
the  Windhome.  The  vans  among  whom  Hoener 
was  a  hostage  have  perished,  and  the  god  re- 
turns, the  developing  force  of  the  new  world. 
Vidar,  the  imperishable  force  of  crude  nature; 
and  Vale,  the  force  of  active  nature,  also  imper- 
ishable,— are  needed,  and  are  at  hand.  Thor  is 
gone ;  but  his  sons  Mode  and  Magne,  courage 
and    strength,  remain,  and   wield    the    hammer. 

•Anderson,  Norse  Mythology,  pp.  428,  429.  431,  432, 


428  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Lif  and  Lifthraser,  the  principles  of  life,  become 
the  parents  of  the  new  race.  The  good  alone 
survive  the  awful  conflict.  The  righteous  re- 
joice in  heavenly  Gimle;  the  wicked,  in  Naa- 
strand,  wade  in  streams  of  venom,  and  it  would 
seem,  are  finally  washed  down  to  Hvergelmer, 
"that  horrible  old  kettle,  where  their  bodies  are 
torn  by  Nidhug,  the  dragon  of  the  uttermost 
darkness." 

The  account  of  the  creation  is  a  sort  of  evo- 
lution, which  may  be  a  wreck  of  the  primitive 
revelation  sadly  distorted  by  the  wild  fancy  of 
these  stern  old  warriors.  The  gods  correspond 
with  their  wild  scenery  and  wild  life,  and  the 
retributions  of  the  future  satisfy  their  ideals  of 
happiness  and  misery.  They  have  filled  the 
world  with  elves  and  fairies,  which  have  fur- 
nished the  material  for  the  most  charming  house- 
hold tales  and  the  most  beautiful  pictures  for 
the  poet,  while  the  giant  forms  in  their  mythol- 
ogy fill  the  mind  with  awe  and  amazement. 
Many  modern  customs,  some  of  them  most  beau- 
tiful, may  be  traced  to  primitive  recognitions  of 
these  various  classes  of  beings. 

The  old  Norse  were  given  much  to  sorcery 
and  divination.  The  diviners  were  male  or 
female,  but  the  latter  were  by  far  the  most  nu- 
merous.    Some   had  familiar  spirits,  whom  they 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  r.v/17 :/.  429 

consulted  in  the  form  of  little  idols;  others 
dragged  the  ghosts  of  the  departed  from  their 
tombs,  and  compelled  them  to  speak.  Sometimes, 
as  we  shall  see,  the  dead  walked  forth  of  their 
own  accord,  when  they  had  not  been  treated  well 
in  this  life,  or  when  their  last  wishes  had  been 
disregarded. 

Tacitus  says  that  the  Germans  supposed  that 
some  divine  and  prophetic  quality  resided  in 
women,  and  were  careful  neither  to  disregard 
their  admonitions  nor  to  neglect  their  answers. 

"Nothing  was  formerly  more  common  in  the 
North  than  to  meet  with  women  who  delivered 
oracular  information,  cured  the  most  inveterate 
maladies,  assumed  whatever  shape  they  pleased, 
raised  storms,  chained  up  the  winds,  traveled 
through  the  air,  and,  in  one  word,  performed 
every  function  of  the  fairy  art.  Thus  endowed 
with  supernatural  powers,  these  prophetesses 
being  converted  as  it  were  into  fairies  or  de- 
mons, influenced  the  events  they  had  predicted, 
and  all  nature  became  subject  to  their  com- 
mand."* 

They  resorted  to  supernatural  means  to  dis- 
cover the  truth.  They  would  tie  the  accused 
with  oords,  and  cast  him  into  the  water.  If  he 
sank,  he  was  considered  innocent;  if  he  floated, 

*  Mallet,  Northern  Antiquities,  p.  200. 
37 


430  DEPARTED  GODS. 

he  was  held  to  be  guilty.  They  would  compel 
him  to  handle  hot  iron,  put  on  red-hot  gauntlets, 
or  walk  blindfolded  over  burning  plowshares. 
If,  at  the  end  of  a  certain  number  of  days,  marks 
of  the  fire  remained  on  his  hands,  he  was  guilty; 
if  not,  he  was  innocent.  They  generally  al- 
lowed champions  to  undergo  the  ordeal  when 
women  were  the  accused.  The  elements  were 
thought  to  have  been  animated  by  an  intelligent 
spirit,  as  just  and  righteous  as  the  God  whence 
it  has  sprung.  This  spirit  would  declare  the 
truth  by  the  treatment  it  extended  to  the  ac- 
cused. 

There  were  famous  oracles  connected  with 
the  chief  temples.  Saxo  the  Grammarian  tells 
us  that  it  was  the  custom  of  the  ancient  Danes 
to  consult  the  oracles  of  the  Fates  concerning 
the  future  destiny  of  children.  Fridlief  entered 
the  temple  of  the  gods  to  pray,  and  to  learn  the 
destiny  of  his  son  Olaus.  In  the  sanctuary  he 
saw  three  goddesses  seated.  The  first  goddess 
was  most  kindly  disposed,  and  granted  the  child 
both  beauty  and  the  gift  of  pleasing.  The  sec- 
ond endowed  him  with  a  noble  heart.  But  the 
third  was  an  evil  goddess,  moved  by  envy  and 
spite,  and  determined  to  destroy  the  work  of  her 
sisters.  To  this  end  she  cursed  him  with  covet- 
ousness. 


THE  DOOM  of  THE  UNI7BRSK.  431 

It  was  sometimes  thought  that  the  statues 
spoke,  and  the  people  succeeded  in  persuading 
themselves  that  they  could  see  a  gesture  or  nod 
of  the  head. 

The  runes  were  used  for  purposes  of  divina- 
tion. The  bitter  runes  could  injure  an  enemy; 
the  victorious  runes  would  secure  success  in  bat- 
tle; the  medicinal  runes,  inscribed  on  leaves, 
would  heal  all  wounds  and  all  diseases.  Some 
would  dispel  melancholy,  prevent  shipwreck, 
and  preserve  against  the  resentment  of  enemies; 
others  were  antidotes  against  poison,  or  would 
render  a  mistress  favorable.  These  various  kinds 
of  runes  differed  only  in  the  ceremonies  observed 
in  writing  them,  in  the  materials  employed,  in 
the  places  where  they  were  exposed,  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  lines  were  drawn,  and  in  other 
similar  particulars. 

*  Once  upon  a  time  Egil  and  Thorfinn  sat  to- 
gether at  table.  Egil  noticed  a  woman  who  lay 
sick  upon  a  cross-bench,  and  learned  that  she  was 
Thorfinn's  daughter  Helga.  She  had  been  long 
ill  from  a  wasting  sickness.  She  could  get  no 
sleep  at  night,  and  was  like  one  ham-stolen,  or 
crazy.  He  inquired  whether  she  had  received 
any  treatment,  and  learned  that  a  son  of  a  bondi 
of  the  neighborhood  had  traced  runes  for  her  re- 
covery, but  that  she   was  far  worse  after  than 


432  DEPARTED  GODS. 

before  the  operation.  At  the  solicitation  of 
Thorfinn,  Egil  took  her  case  in  charge.  He  or- 
dered her  to  be  taken  out  of  the  bed  and  clean 
clothes  to  be  placed  under  her.  Upon  examin- 
ing the  bed  he  found  in  it  a  piece  of  whalebone, 
with  runes  cut  thereon.  He  read  them,  cut 
them  off,  and  scraped  the  chips  into  the  fire. 
He  then  burned  the  whalebone,  and  had  the 
woman's  clothes  carried  out  into  the  open  air. 
Then  he  sang : 

"  As  man  shall  not  trace  runes 
Except  he  can  read  them  well, 
It  is  thus  with  many  a  man 
That  the  dark  letters  bewilder  him. 
I  saw  on  the  cut  whalebone 
Ten  hidden  letters  carved, 
That  have  caused  to  the  leek-linden  (woman) 
A  very  long  sorrow." 

Egil  himself  now  traced  new  runes,  and 
placed  them  under  the  pillow  in  the  bed  where 
the  sick  woman  lay.  The  effect  was  magical. 
She  said  that  it  seemed  as  though  she  had  just 
awoke  from  a  sleep;  and  she  was  healed,  though 
for  some  time  she  continued  weak.  The  father 
and  the  mother  rejoiced  greatly  at  her  re- 
covery.* 

When   Thwied  was  taken  down  to  the   sea, 


Du  Chaillu,  The  Viking  Age,  Vol.  I,  pp.  164,  165;    Egil's 
,  c  75. 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  UXIVERSE.  433 

she  found  a  stump  of  a  tree  with  the  roots.  It 
was  as  large  as  a  man  could  well  carry.  Upon 
carefully  examining,  she  found  evidences  that 
one  side  had  been  burned  and  rubbed.  On  this 
side  she  smoothed  a  small  spot  with  a  knife,  and 
carved  runes  thereon.  Then  she  reddened  it 
with  her  blood,  chanting  over  it  an  incantation. 
Many  other  powerful  incantations  did  she  pro- 
nounce, while  she  walked  backward  in  a  direc- 
tion opposite  to  the  course  of  the  sun  around  the 
stump.  Then  she  had  it  pushed  out  to  sea,  that 
it  might  be  driven  to  Drangey  .and  be  a  source 
of  mischief  to  Grettir.  Her  object  was  accom- 
plished ;  for,  behold,  it  came  to  pass  that  while 
Grettir  was  cutting  the  stump  to  procure  wood 
for  the  fire,  he  wounded  himself  severely  above 
the  knee  with  his  ax !  And  thus,  most  surely, 
the  curse  holds  sternly  on  its  way  and  does  its 
work.* 

Snorro  and  Thorolf  Baegifot  were  engaged  in 
various  quarrels  for  a  long  time.  At  last  Thor- 
olf was  found  dead  at  table,  sitting  in  his  chair, 
and  was  buried  in  a  strong  grave,  with  such  cer- 
emonies as  the  occasion  demanded.  But  the 
grave  could  not  hold  its  viotim.  "He  appeared 
in  the  district  by  day  and  by  night,  slew  men 

*I)u  Chaillu,  The  Viking  Age,  Vol.  I,  pp.  106,  167;  of. 
( in-tti's  Saga,  c.  81. 


434  DEPARTED  GODS. 

and  cattle,  and  harrowed  the  country  so  much 
by  his  frequent  apparition  and  mischievous  ex- 
ploits, that  his  son  Arnkill,  on  the  repeated  com- 
plaints of  the  inhabitants,  resolved  to  change  the 
place  of  his  sepulture.  Some  opposition  was 
threatened  by  the  sons  of  Thorbrand,  who  re- 
fused to  permit  the  corpse  to  be  carried  through 
their  domains,  until  reminded  by  their  father  that 
it  was  illegal  to  refuse  passage  to  those  who  were 
traveling  in  discharge  of  a  duty  imposed  by  law, 
and  such  was  the  burial  of  the  dead.  The  body 
of  Thorolf  was  found  on  opening  the  tomb,  but 
his  aspect  was  fearful  and  grisly  to  a  preternat- 
ural degree.  He  was  placed  on  a  bier,  between 
two  strong  oxen,  which,  nevertheless,  were  worn 
out  by  fatigue  ere  they  had  transported  him 
many  miles.  Others  were  substituted  in  their 
room ;  but  when  they  attained  the  summit  of  a 
hill,  at  some  distance  from  the  destined  place  of 
sepulture,  they  became  frantic,  and,  breaking 
their  yokes,  rushed  down  the  precipice  and  per- 
ished. The  corpse,  too,  became  of  such  ponder- 
ous weight  that  it  could  by  no  means  be  trans- 
ported any  farther,  so  that  Arnkill  was  fain  to 
consign  it  to  the  earth  on  the  ridge  of  the  hill 
where  it  lay,  and  which  took  its  name  thence- 
forth from  that  of  Baegifot.  Arnkill  caused  a 
mound  of  immense  height  to  be  piled  above  the 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  UNIVERSE.  4>"» 

grave,  and  Thorolf,  during  the  life-time  of  his 
son,  remained  quiet  in  his  new  abode."  But 
after  the  death  of  Arnkill,  he  again  came  forth 
from  the  tomb,  slaying  cattle  and  people,  and 
driving  the  inhabitants  from  their  homes.  It 
was  therefore  resolved  to  burn  the  body.  With 
great  difficulty  it  was  transported  to  the  sea-shore, 
where  it  was  burned.  The  district  now,  after  so 
long  a  period  of  disturbance,  had  rest.* 

The  temple  was  a  great  banqueting-hall,  with 
a  small  sanctuary  at  one  end.  A  hearth  in  the 
center  of  the  hall  contained  the  fire.  Apertures 
in  the  roof,  which  seem  to  have  been  furnished 
with  shutters,  afforded  both  windows  and  open- 
ings for  the  escape  of  smoke.  Between  two 
wooden  columns  on  the  southern  side  of  the  hall 
was  a  high  seat,  occupied  by  the  chieftain.  These 
columns  were  carved  with  runic  characters  and 
ornamented  with  images  of  the  divinities.  When 
a  chief  would  form  a  settlement  on  a  distant 
coast,  he  would  frequently  take  with  him  these 
sacred  columns,  and,  as  he  neared  the  shore, 
throw  them  overboard.  They  would  float  to  the 
shore,  and,  at  the  place  where  they  landed,  he 
would  form  his  settlement  and  erect  a  new  temple. 
On  the  north  side  of  the  hall  was  a  seat  for  the 
most  distinguished  guest.     On  right  and  left  of 

'  MalK-t,  Northern  Antiquities,  |»i>.  530,  631. 


436  DEPARTED  GODS. 

the  chief  and  the  honored  guest  were  the  retain- 
ers of  the  court  and  the  other  guests  of  lesser 
dignity  and  worth.  The  flesh  of  the  sacrificial 
animal  was  boiled  in  a  huge  kettle  over  the  fire 
and  served  to  the  company,  who  amused  them- 
selves by  throwing  the  bones,  stripped  of  their 
flesh,  at  one  another  across  the  hall.  They  vied 
with  one  another  drinking  ale,  and  skalds  were 
always  present  to  charm  or  inspire  them  with 
their  poetic  lays. 

The  sacrifices  offered  to  the  gods  seem  at  first 
to  have  been  the  simple  productions  of  the  earth. 
At  a  later  period  animal  sacrifices,  and  even 
human  victims,  were  thought  to  be  most  ac- 
ceptable. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  battle  of  Hakon,  the 
Norwegian  Jarl,  against  the  sea-rovers  of  Joms- 
burg,  victory  seemed  to  be  turning  to  the  side 
of  his  enemies.  The  Jarl  called  his  sons  ashore 
for  a  consultation.  "  Hakon  Jarl  said  :  *  I  think 
I  see  that  the  battle  begins  to  turn  against  us; 
and  I  dislike  to  fight  against  these  men,  for  I 
believe  that  none  are  their  equals;  and  I  see 
that  it  will  fare  ill,  unless  we  hit  upon  some 
plan;  you  must  stay  here  with  the  host,  for  it  is 
imprudent  for  all  the  chiefs  to  leave  it,  if  the 
Jornsvikings  attack,  as  we  may  at  any  moment 
expect.     I  will   go   ashore  with   some  men,  and 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  VXIVERSE.  4M7 

see  what  can  be  done.'  The  Jarl  went  ashore 
north  to  the  island.  He  entered  a  glade  in  the 
forest,  sank  down  on  both  his  knees, ami  prayed; 
he  looked  northwards,  and  spoke  what  he  thought 
was  most  to  the  purpose;  and  in  his  prayers  he 
called  upon  his  fully  trusted  Thorgerd  Horda- 
troff ;  but  she  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  his  prayer, 
and  he  thought  that  she  must  have  become  angry 
with  him.  He  offered  to  sacrifice  several  things, 
but  she  would  not  accept  them,  and  it  seemed  to 
him  the  case  was  hopeless.  At  last  he  offered 
human  sacrifices,  but  she  would  not  accept  them. 
The  Jarl  considered  his  case  most  hopeless,  if 
he  could  not  please  her;  he  began  to  increase 
the  offer,  and  at  last  included  all  his  men  ex- 
cept himself  and  his  sons  Eirik  and  Svein.  He 
had  a  son,  Erling,  who  was  seven  winters  old, 
and  a  very  promising  youth.  Thorgerd  accepted 
his  offer,  and  chose  Erling,  his  son.  When  the 
Jarl  found  that  his  prayers  and  vows  were  heard, 
he  thought  the  matters  were  better,  and  there- 
upon gave  the  boy  to  Skopti  Kurk,  his  thrall, 
who  put  him  to  death  in  Hakon's  usual  way  as 
taught  by  him."* 

Men,  particularly  those   slain  in  battle,  were 
given  to  Odin  for  victory;  and   the  altars  were 

•Du  Chaillu,  The  Viking  Age,  Vol.  I,  p.  307.    Quoted  from 
Fornmanna  Sugur,  xi,  134. 


438  DEPARTED  GODS. 

stained  with  the  blood  of  fallen  chiefs.  Prison- 
ers of  war  were  sacrificed,  their  blood  placed  in 
bowls,  and  their  bodies  thrown  into  the  bogs 
or  a  sacrificing  spring  at  the  door  of  the 
temple. 

"Thorgrim  Godi  was  a  great  sacrificer.  He 
had  a  large  temple  raised  in  his  grass-plot,  one 
hundred  feet  in  length  and  sixty  in  breadth,  and 
every  man  was  to  pay  temple-tax  to  it.  Thor 
was  most  worshiped  there ;  the  inmost  part  of  it 
was  made  round,  as  if  it  were  a  dome;  it  was 
all  covered  with  hangings,  and  had  windows; 
Thor  stood  in  the  middle,  and  other  gods  on  both 
sides.  There  was  an  altar  in  front,  made  with 
great  skill,  and  covered  above  with  iron;  on  it 
there  was  to  be  a  fire,  which  should  never  die 
out,  which  they  called  holy  fire.  On  the  altar 
was  to  lie  a  large  ring  of  silver,  which  the  tem- 
ple priest  was  to  wear  on  his  arm  at  all  meet- 
ings. Upon  it  all  oaths  were  to  be  taken  in 
cases  of  circumstantial  evidence.  On  the  altar 
was  to  stand  a  large  bowl  of  copper,  in  which 
was  to  be  put  the  blood  which  came  from  the 
cattle  or  men  given  to  Thor;  these  they  called 
hlaut  (sacrifice-blood),  and  hlaut-bolli  (sacrifice- 
bowl).  The  hlaut  was  to  be  sprinkled  on  men 
and  cattle,  and  the  cattle  were  to  be  used  for  the 
people  (to  eat)  when  the   sacrificing  feasts  were 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  UNIVERSE.  439 

held.  The  men  whom  they  sacrificed  were  to  be 
thrown  down  into  the  spring  which  was  outside, 
near  the  doors,  which  they  called  bVot-kelda."* 

The  dom-ring  was  a  ring  of  stones,  in  the 
center  of  which  was  a  sacrificial  stone,  on  which 
human  victims  were  broken. 

There  was  a  still  more  fearful  mode  of  sacri- 
ficing. On  the  back,  on  both  sides  of  the  spine, 
a  space  was  marked  out  in  the  form  of  an  eagle. 
From  this  space  the  skin  and  flesh  were  torn 
even  to  the  bone,  and  the  lungs  were  dragged 
from  the  openings  which  had  been  made. 

The  temple  of  Upsal,  in  Sweden,  glittered  on 
all  sides  with  gold.  It  was  consecrated  to  the 
three  great  divinities,  which  were  represented  by 
images.  Odin  had  a  sword  in  his  hand.  Thor, 
at  his  left,  had  a  scepter  in  one  hand,  and  his 
hammer  in  the  other.  He  wore  a  crown  on  his 
head.  Sometimes  he  was  represented  on  a 
chariot,  drawn  by  two  he-goats  with  silver  bridles, 
and  his  head  surrounded  with  stars.  Frey  stood 
at  the  left  of  Thor,  and  was  in  form  a  hermaph- 
rodite. Near  the  temple  was  the  sacred  grove 
of  Odin,  full  of  the  bones  of  men  and  animals 
which  had  been  sacrificed.  Every  tree  and 
every  leaf  in  this  grove  was  held  most  sacred. 

*  Du  Clmillu,  The  Viking  Age,  Vol.  I,  pp.  3G8, 369.    Qo 
from  Kjalnesinga,  c.  2. 


440  DEPARTED  GODS. 

Sacrifices  were  renewed  every  ninth  month 
for  nine  days,  and  nine  victims,  either  animal  or 
human,  were  offered.  Every  ninth  year  the 
most  solemn  sacrifices  were  performed.  On  this 
occasion  the  king  and  all  important  citizens  were 
obliged  to  appear  with  offerings.  Those  who 
could  not  come  in  person  sent  their  presents  or 
their  value  in  money.  Many  strangers  thronged 
the  city,  and  none  with  unstained  honor  were 
excluded ;  but  no  man  accused  of  cowardice 
dared  appear  at  this  sacred  assembly  of  heroes. 
They  chose  nine  persons  to  be  sacrificed.  These 
were  selected  from  captives  in  time  of  war,  and 
from  slaves  in  time  of  peace.  The  method  of 
selection  was  the  lot,  and  yet  the  opinions  of 
the  bystanders  had  much  to  do  with  determin- 
ing the  choice.  When  the  occasion  was  one  of 
the  greatest  importance  noble  victims  were  re- 
quired. The  first  king  of  Vermaland  was  burned 
as  a  sacrifice  to  Odin,  to  put  an  end  to  a  dearth. 
Aun,  king  of  Sweden,  devoted  to  Odin  nine  sons 
that  his  own  life  might  be  prolonged. 

We  have  several  accounts  of  the  rites  to  be 
observed  in  offering  sacrifices.  The  sacred  fire 
upon  the  altar  was  kept  burning  day  and  night. 
It  was  surrounded  by  all  sorts  of  iron  and  brazen 
vessels.  Among  them  was  one  conspicuous  for 
its  size,  which  was  destined  for  the  reception  of 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  0X1  VERSE.  441 

the  blood  of  the  victims.  The  victim  having 
been  chosen,  it  was  conducted  to  the  altar,  at 
the  foot  of  which  it  was  speedily  killed.  The 
entrails  were  examined,  and  iBguriaa  drawn 
therefrom  the  same  as  among  the  classic  nations. 
The  flesh  was  dressed  and  served  up  to  crown 
the  feast  prepared  for  the  assembly.  The  people 
were  not  fastidious  in  their  tastes,  but  partook  of 
even  horse  with  pleasure — the  chiefs  as  well  as 
the  people  not  rejecting  this  uncommon  article  of 
diet.  When  human  sacrifices  were  offered,  the 
victim  which  had  been  selected  was  laid  upon  a 
flat  stone,  and  in  this  position  either  strangled 
or  knocked  on  the  head.  The  bodies  were  some- 
times burned  and  sometimes  suspended  in  a  sa- 
cred grove  not  far  from  the  temple.  The  blood 
which  had  been  caught  was  used  to  sanctify  the 
place  and  the  people.  A  portion  was  sprinkled 
upon  the  people  and  a  portion  upon  the  sacred 
grove.  The  images  of  the  gods  and  their  altars 
were  also  sprinkled  upon  by  the  blood  of  the 
sacrifice.  The  benches  within  the  temple  were 
bedewed,  and  the  walls  of  the  temple,  both 
within  and  without,  were  sprinkled.* 

We  have  ceased  to  be  startled  when  we  meet 
with  human  sacrifices,  either  in  the  religions  of 
ancient  peoples  or  among  savage  tribes  of  mod- 

*  Mallet,  Northern  Antiquities,  p.  113. 


442  DEPARTED  GODS. 

era  times.  The  subject  of  human  sacrifices, 
though  an  interesting  one,  is  too  large  for  treat- 
ment here ;  but  we  hope  to  return  to  its  discus- 
sion in  a  future  work. 

When  Fridthjof  entered  the  great  temple  in 
Moeri,  the  kings  at  the  disablbt  sat  drinking. 
"  There  was  fire  on  the  floor,  and  their  wives  sat 
at  the  fireside  and  warmed  the  gods,  and  some 
besmeared  them  with  grease  and  wiped  them 
with  a  cloth."*  Though  idols  were  not  known 
in  the  early  religion,  they  had  already  become 
greatly  multiplied  when  Christianity  came  into 
contact  with  this  form  of  heathendom. 

Sigmond  was  ready  to  start  on  an  expedition 
to  avenge  his  father,  and  Hakon  Jarl  went  out 
with  him,  and  asked  concerning  his  religious  be- 
lief. "  Sigmond  answered  :  '  I  believe  in  my 
might  and  strength.'  The  Jarl  replied :  '  It  must 
not  be  so.  Thou  must  seek  for  help  where  I 
put  all  my  trust,  which  is  in  Thorgerd  Horda- 
brud.  Let  us  go  to  her,  and  try  to  get  luck  for 
thee  from  her.'  Sigmond  told  him  to  do  as  he 
liked.  They  went  to  the  woods,  and  then,  by  a 
little  by-path,  to  an  open  space  in  the  forest, 
where  there  was  a  house  with  a  fence  around  it. 
This  house  was  very  fine,  and  the  carvings  were 
ornamented  with  gold  and   silver.     Hakon  and 

*  Fridthjof's  Saga,  9. 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  UM  VERSE.  443 

Sigmond  entered  with  a  few  men.  There  were 
many  gods,  and  so  many  glass  windows  that 
there  was  no  shadow  anywhere.  A  splendidly 
dressed  woman  was  in  the  inner  part  of  the 
house,  opposite  the  entrance.  The  Jarl  threw 
himself  down,  and  lay  long  before  her  feet;  then 
he  arose  and  told  Sigmond  that  they  must  make 
her  some  sacrifice,  and  put  silver  on  the  stool  be- 
fore her.  'But,  as  a  mark  that  she  will  accept, 
I  want  her  to  let  loose  the  ring  she  wears  on  her 
arm ;  then  Sigmond  will  get  luck  from  that  ring.' 
The  Jarl  took  hold  of  the  ring,  but  it  seemed  to 
Sigmond  that  she  clenched  her  fist,  and  he  did 
not  get  it.  He  threw  himself  down  a  second 
time  before  her,  and  Sigmond  saw  that  he  wept. 
He  rose,  and  took  hold  of  the  ring,  which  then 
was  loose,  and  gave  it  to  Sigmond,  who  prom- 
ised not  to  part  with  the  ring.'* 

The  great  temple  in  Gautland  accommodated 
one  hundred  gods. 

When  Olaf  Tryggvason,  with  a  few  attend- 
ants, entered  the  temple  of  Thrandheim,  he  be- 
held a  multitude  of  carved  idols.  Thor  was  the 
favorite  god  and  most  worshiped,  and  had  a 
place  in  the  middle  of  the  group.  He  was  of 
large  size,  and  was  ornamented  all  over  with 
gold  and  silver.  Two  well-made  he-goats  were 
harnessed  to  the  chariot  in  which  he  sat.     The 


444  •  DEPARTED  GODS. 

goats,  as  well  as  the  chariot,  rested  on  wheels. 
Around  the  horns  of  the  goats  was  a  rope  of 
twisted  silver.  The  whole  was  a  work  of  won- 
derful skill.* 

Dithmar  was  bishop  of  Merseburg  in  the  elev- 
enth century.  He  tells  us  that  there  was  in  his 
day,  in  Zealand,  a  place  which  was  the  capital 
of  Denmark,  named  Lederun.  To  this  place  the 
Danes  resort  in  multitudes  every  nine  years,  in 
the  month  of  January,  to  offer  sacrifices.  Upon 
this  most  sacred  occasion  ninety-nine  men,  and 
the  same  number  each  of  horses,  dogs,  and  cocks, 
were  sacrificed  to  appease  the  gods. 

Arngrim  Jonas,  an  Icelandic  author  of  great 
learning,  says  that  there  were  two  temples  in 
Iceland  in  which  human  sacrifices  were  offered, 
and  a  famous  pit  or  well  into  which  they  were 
thrown  headlong. 

In  each  of  these  temples  of  Iceland  "  there 
was  a  private  chapel,  which  was  regarded  as  a 
holy  place.  There  they  placed  the  idols  upon  a 
kind  of  altar,  around  which  they  ranged  the  vic- 
tims that  were  to  be  offered  up.  Another  altar 
stood  opposite  to  it,  plated  with  iron,  in  order 
that  the  fire,  which  was  to  burn  there  perpet- 
ually, should  not  damage  it.     Upon  this   altar 

*  Du  Chaillu,  The  Viking  Age,  Vol.  I,  pp.  376,  377 :  Faerey- 
inga  Saga,  ch.  23 ;  Flateyjarbok,  i,  p.  319. 


THE  DOOM  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 

was  placed  a  vase  of  brass,  in  which  they  re- 
ceived the  blood  of  the  victims.  Beside  it  stood 
a  brush,  which  they  made  use  of  to  sprinkle  the 
blood  upon  the  bystanders.  There  hung  up  like- 
wise a  great  silver  ring,  which  they  stained  with 
blood,  and  which  whoever  took  an  oath  on  any 
occasion  was  required  to  hold  in  his  hand.  In 
one  of  these  temples  there  was  also,  near  the 
chapel,  a  deep  pit  or  well,  into  which  they  cast 
the  victims."  * 

The  Thingstead  of  Iceland  "was  always  near 
the  temple,  in  which  one  of  the  sacerdotal  mag- 
istrates performed  a  sacrifice  and  sprinkled  the 
walls  of  the  edifice,  as  well  as  the  bystanders, 
with  the  blood  of  the  victims — holding  in  his 
hand,  on  this  as  on  every  other  solemn  occasion, 
a  massive  silver  ring,  with  which  the  altar  of 
every  temple  was  furnished.  The  Things  were 
held  in  the  open  air,  and  served  both  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  public  affairs  and  the  administration 
of  justice.  For  the  latter  purpose,  a  circle  called 
the  doom-ring,  domhringr,  was  formed  with  hazel- 
twigs,  to  which  were  attached  cords  called  vebond. 
Within  this  circle  sat  the  judges,  the  people  stand- 
ing on  the  outside,  and  in  the  middle  stood  the 
blotsteinn,  a  huge  stone  with  a  sharp  ridge,  on 


Mullet,  Northern  Antiquities,  p.  109. 
88 


446  DEPARTED  GODS. 

which  the  backs  of  criminals  condemned  to  death 
were  broken."  * 

There  were  three  great  religious  festivals. 
The  first  was  celebrated  at  the  winter  solstice. 
The  night  on  which  it  was  observed  was  called 
Mother-night,  because  it  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  year.  The  feast  was  called  Jul,  and  was 
held  in  honor  of  Frey,  from  whom  they  suppli- 
cated a  fruitful  and  propitious  season.  There 
were  sacrifices,  feasting,  nocturnal  assemblies, 
and  demonstrations  of  most  dissolute  joy. 

The  second  festival  was  held  at  the  first 
quarter  of  the  second  moon  of  the  year,  and 
was  sacred  to  certain  female  divinities.  It  was 
to  secure  pleasure,  fruitfulness,  and  victory  over 
all  enemies. 

The  third  festival  was  celebrated  in  honor  of 
Odin  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  to  welcome 
the  beautiful  season,  and  to  insure  success  in  all 
warlike  expeditions. 

This  old  religion,  though  it  has  long  ago 
passed  away,  has  left  a  fragrance  .in  the  homes 
and  hearts  of  all  descendants  of  the  hardy  and 
earnest  Norse  in  whatever  part  of  the  world 
destiny  has  fixed  their  habitations,  and  wherever 
to-day  they  bow  the  knee  in  the  presence  of 
brighter  and  holier  gods. 

♦Mallet,  Northern  Antiquities,  p.  291. 


IflDEX. 


Abbk  Tierre  di  Chiniac,  SOS. 

Abeona.  14.Y 

Abred,  288. 

Absyrtus,  106. 

Abury,  Temple  of.  246. 

"  Academy,"  the,  uf   Loudon,  130. 

Achilles,  56,  MB 

Achilles  latins,  86. 

Acropolis,  31. 

Actium,  165. 

Adeon,  228. 

Adeona,  145. 

'  \<l  Sationes  '  of  Tertullinn,  147. 

Aduuis,  1-1),  129. 

Xger,  god  of   the  sea,  .'{99;  entertains, 

the  gods— 388-390,  407  408. 
•ASueid,  86.  88. 
jEngus,  219,  221,  271.  legends,  225,  ft 

uq. 
iEolus,  god  of  winds,  74,  89. 
vEsar,  121. 

.vlus,  16,78,  108. 
/Ksculapius,  310. 
.•Estyaus,  353. 
/Kttielheard,  243 
.■Ethiopians,  31. 
Afferenda.  140. 
Agder,  402 
Agenor,  14"> 
Agenoria.  14.">. 
Agrionia,  71. 
Agrippina,  188. 
Aita,  120. 
Akliate,  121. 
Akhuritz,  121. 
Akko.'.U 
Akhrathe,  118. 
Alani,  35.1. 
Alaric,  170. 
Albsn,  I'll 
Alemona,  144. 
All'heim,  401. 
Allobruges,  312. 


Allot,  280. 

Alpaner,  121. 

Alpheus,  the  river-god,  84. 

Alpl.ito.  92. 

Altars  to  the  unknown  god,  II 

Allor,  Ml 

Altria,  118. 

A  mail,  395. 

Amlimsla  71 

Ammianus  Marcelliuus,354;  upon  tb« 
Druida,301,302. 

Ampliidroma,  56. 

Anacreon,  105. 

"  Ancient  Fragments."  15. 

•'  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  He- 
cent  Discoveries,"  172,  173. 

Anderson,  347,  367,  388,  394,  402,  406. 
407,410,425. 

Anglesey, 301. 

"  Annals,"  of  Tacitus, 301.  354. 

Annwu,  288 

•'  Anthropological  Review,"  238. 

Antigone  108. 

Aphrodite, 50,  58, 120;  goddess  of  lore 
and  Iwauty,  61  ;  bytun  to,  79,  80. 
perhaps  original!)  Asiatic  aud  I'l.-i  - 
nician,  60. 

Apollo,  24,  28,  57,  58,  293,  297,  316  ;  ad- 
Tent  of  worship  in  tl recce,  36,  37; 
analogy  with  l he  Son  of  CM,  34,  36; 
at  Delphi,  37;  carried  by  swans  to 
the  land  of  the  Ilyperhorenna,  88: 
character,  32-34 ;  compared  with 
Athene,  47-49;  Delphic  oracles,  34  ; 
early  precocity,  38,  39  ;  embraces  the 
will  of  Zeus,  34;  festivals,  39,  44); 
leader  of  the  Muses,  3H ;  leading 
idea,  28;  myths,  39;  oracular  re- 
sponses, 33,  34,  38;  I'hu'hus,  38; 
power  an. I  influence, 33,  34  ;  religion 
had  different  phases,  37  ;  NfNMBttrf 
in  art,  40;  son  and  interpreter  of 
Zeus,  32,  38;  symbols,  40;  worship 
447 


448 


INDEX. 


introduced  in  Rome,  40;  worship 
perhaps  foreign  in  origin,  32. 

Apollo  Citharoedus,321. 

Apollo  Ismenios,  39,  40. 

Apollonius  Rhegiiis,  80,  106. 

Apuleius,  68. 

"Arcades,"  of  Milton,  84. 

Arcadia,  68,  230. 

*'  Archaeological  Dictionary,"  of  Cooper, 
118, 132. 

Arch-Druid,  306. 

Ares,  12,  42, 121 ;  character,  53  ;  god  of 
battles,  53;  wounded,  53,  54  ;  yields 
to  Apollo  and  Athene,  53. 

Areopagus,  96. 

Arethusa,  84. 

Argaion,  30. 

"  Argonautics,"  80,  106. 

Arionhrod,  257,264. 

Aristotle,  31. 

Arngrim,  Jonas,  444,  445. 

Arnkill,434,  435. 

Arnobius,  upon  the  Etruscan  Religion, 
106. 

Artay,  312. 

Arteuiidorus,  295. 

Artemis,  38,  50;  annual  festival,  60; 
character.  58,  59;  goddess  of  the 
moon,  58;  her  image  said  to  have 
fallen  from  heaven,  60;  human  sacri- 
fices, 60  ;  image  brought  from  the  Cri- 
mea to  Sparta,  60  ;  same  attributes  as 
Apollo,  58;  temple  at  Ephesus.  60; 
worshiped  by  Caiians and  Eeleges.GO. 

Arthurstone.  divination  at  245. 

Arverni,  312. 

Asa-Loke,evil,  405,  406. 

Asas.  359. 

Asciburgium,  354. 

Asgard,  358,  360,  361,  369,  375,  380  ;  fear, 
because  of  Loke,  406. 

Ask,  358,  360. 

Assos,  13. 

Ale,  104. 

Athene,  40,  51,154;  character.  41-46 j 
compared  with  Apollo.  47-49  ;  com- 
pared with  Odysseus  42-46 ;  defects 
in  character,  46 ;  goddess  of  war,  40  ; 
inventions,  42 ;  leading  idea,  28 ;  place 
in  Olympian  assembly,  40;  rank. 
42  ;  sprang  from  Zeus,  full-grown,  42. 

Athens,  74,  87,  89;  festivals  to  Apollo 
at,  39. 


Athrha,  129. 

Athrys,  27. 

Atropos,  129. 

Attica,  71. 

Audhrimuier,  376. 

Audhumbla,  357,  359. 

Augerbode,  the  giantess,  406. 

Augurs,  177  ;  when  consulted,  178. 

Augustine,  147. 

Augustus,  173. 

Aun,  440. 

Aurbode,  404. 

Aurgelmer,  357. 

Aurinia,  348. 

Aurora,  120. 

Antun,  figure  at,  324, 

Avagdu,  276,  277. 

Avenches,  264. 

Avenline  Hill,  152,  153. 

Avun,  120. 

"  BACCH.E,"  the,  71. 

Bacchus,  57,  70,  71, 120. 

Bad u henna,  353. 

Balder.  391, 427  ;  all  the  gods  and  things 
weep  for  him  except  Thok,  393; 
character,  391 ;  dream,  391 ;  myths 
explained,  393,  394  ;  rendered  invul- 
nerable, 392;  slain  by  blind  Hoder 
392. 

Baranton,  fountain,  231  ;  procures  rain, 
231. 

"  Barddas,"  287.  289. 

Bardd  Teulen,  285. 

Bards  of  Wales,  285,  286. 

Baring-Gould,  relates  legend  of  the 
"  Happy  Isle,''  282. 

Balh.318. 

Battle,  last  of  the  Norse,  424,  425. 

Bauge,  373,  374. 

Beaucroissant,  312. 

Beauty  in  Stoicism,  184. 

Becker,  92. 

"  Beginnings  of  History,"  26,  27 

Beli   229. 

Bellona  155. 

Bellonarii,  155. 

Belor,  the  robber  with  one  eye,  261-263. 

Beltane.  238,275;  when  kindled,  237. 

Beowulf,  341. 

Bergelmer,357,  360. 

Bestla,  357. 

Bia,  88. 


IXDEX. 


m 


Bifr.nt,  362. 

Bilskernii,  378. 

"  Birds  «.f  KbiauDon."  281. 

Biroge,  the  fairy,  262. 

"  Hl.i.-k  DMth, '  4i<y,  lit, 

Black  Dwarfs,  414    I 

"Black  KiiikIk.     -tury  ,,|  the.  253-235. 

BlaMln.in,  :;'.»>,  4J4. 

Blodened,  attempts   to   kill    I.lew,  259, 

Mi;  changed   into  an  owl,  2U);  fasb 

■Med  from  iK.wers,  259. 
Boann.  221,  2. 
Budb,  the  Bad 
B. ..In,  394. 
Bu'otia,  341. 
Bolthorn,357. 
Bonnain,  SO,  51. 
Bouzyges,  17. 
Book  of  Leinster,242. 
Bor,  357. 

Boreas,  89,  alUir  at  llissits,  89. 
Bormana,  316. 
Boriuanns,  :tlt*.. 
Bottrell,  241. 

Boyne,  221,  27<i,  J77  ;  origin,  279. 
Brace,  18. 

Br.ige,  various  adventures,  395,  397. 
Bran,  280,281. 
Bran  wen,  280. 
Brecilien,  231. 
Brecknock,  330. 

Briareus,  22,  25  ;  son  of  Poseidon,  30. 
Brttidablik,  391. 
Britfit,  320. 

Brisinga  necklace,  395. 
Britain,  215,  217,  229,  295,  297. 
Britannia's  Pastorals,  418. 
Brittany,  246. 
Britons,  217. 
Brok,  368,  369. 
Bronte,  23. 
Brownies,  330. 
Brown  dwarfs,  412-414. 
Brugh.of  the  Boyne,  222. 
Bngge,  views  on  Norse  literature,  342, 

343. 
Bulisaiita  320. 
Bure,  357,  359. 

Cabiri,  58,67. 
Olian  Hill  153. 

Car  224,  230  ;  and   sisters  transformed 
into  swans,  221,222. 


Ckmtar,  Ml 

Care,  139, 163. 
Cwrleoo,  229. 

1  li,  name  of  London,  218. 
Ca*r  mart  hen,  229. 

•  .i  i  in. i r\. .n,  226. 
Ca-sar,  177.  317,  318,320,1131,  355;   upon 

Hi.-    1'iiu.U   ..i    Caul,  290-293;    upon 

the  (..till.  K<xl*,  354,  353. 
CMH  MmOHAh  KMlua.202. 
Calabria,  179. 
Calendar,  under  the  »u|iemM..ii  i>l  the 

oraclo  ill   .\|Killti,  M 

Callander,  2:i7. 
Calliiuaclius,  66. 

Calypso,  Phoenician   personage,  83 ,  re- 
tains   Odysseus,  81  ;    ber    dwelling 

m,  n 

Cauiillux,  120,  152. 
t  .mi. i  na,  145. 
Campania,  147. 
Campus  Marl ius,  155 
Candclifeni,  144. 

»  annibals  amuiig  the  Druids;  294. 
Cauopu*.  lv'.. 
Canute.  J H.. 
Capitoliue  Hill,  152. 
Caracal  la,  31li. 
Car.  lea,  145. 
Caria,  31. 
Caristia,  166. 
Carlyle,  340,  363. 
Carman,  263. 
Carmen  tie.  144. 
■  Carmina,"  of  Horace,  129. 
Carneia,  festival,  39, 
Castor,  353, 354. 
Catti,  354. 

Caturix  as  Mars,  318. 
Celtic  fairies,  325,  et  ttq. 
Celtic  gods,  mythological  system  ex- 
plained, 281,  282. 
Celtic  inscriptions,  312,  «f  teq. 
Celtic  Mythology,  216. 
Celtic  Zeus,  248  ;  character,  286,  287. 
Cenn  Cruaich,  242, 248. 
Centaurs,  72,  89. 
Cerberus,  89,  286, 

Ceres,  84,  158,  159,172,  295;  temple,  173. 
Cerie,  158. 

Cernunuos,  291 ;  represented,  321. 
Cents  158. 
Get,  220. 


450 


INDEX. 


Chaldaei,  304. 

fc  Charicles,"  92. 

Charis,  87. 

Chariles,  88;  in  later  art,  87;  number, 
87;  Orchomenus,  their  seat  of  wor- 
ship, 87;  symbolism, 87. 

Charon,  80, 124,313. 

Chartin,  122,  123  ;  character,  123, 124  ; 
representation,  124. 

■  C'heophori,"  108. 

Chimaera,  89  ;  character,  90. 

Chippenham,  417. 

Choir  of  the  Giants,  224. 

Chthouia,  festival,  66,  67. 

Cicero,  132,  179, 186,  305. 

Cimbri,  described,  294,295  ;  divination, 
295. 

Circe,  82, 106. 

Circus  Maxiiuus,  164. 

Cithaeron,  72. 

Citharcedus,  321. 

"Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria," 
117, 119,124,  126,  ISO,  132,  135,  136. 

Citium,183. 

• '  City  of  God  "  of  Augustine,  147. 

Claudius,  188. 

Cleach's  Crowd,  224. 

Cleanthes,  hymn,  13. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  68, 132. 

Cnidus,  61,65. 

Collating  146. 

Conaire  the  Great,  219. 

Conchobar  mac  Nessa,  220,  266,  269. 

"  Conflict  of  Christianity  with  Hea- 
thendom," 105. 

Conn,  219,  249. 

Couuaught,  224. 

Conn  la,  278. 

Connla's  Well,  278. 

Consus,  145, 165. 

"  Contemporary  Review,"  52. 

Cooper,  118, 132. 

Cornwall,  240. 

Corinac  mac  Airt,  219,  221. 

Corsica,  188. 

Corybantes,  251. 

Cottos,22. 

Crawford  and  Balcarras,  117,  128. 

Crete,  23,  32. 

"Crito,"  110,  111. 

Cronos,  22, 159 ;  swallows  his  own  chil- 
dren, 23  ;  temple  at  Athens,  24  ;  war 
against  the  Cyclopes,  23. 


Cruachan,  263. 

Cuchulain,  the  sun -hero,  264;  ap- 
pearance, 261-266;  fought  Ailill 
aud  Medh,  2G6;  great  exploits,  266; 
visit  the  realm  of  the  dead. 

Culaun,  the  smith  deity  of  the  under 
world,  267,  268. 

Cunina,  145. 

Cupra,  117. 

Cortina,  32, 37,  99, 102, 103. 

Cybele,  117. 

Cyclopes,  22,  89 ;  furnished  Jupiter 
with  thunderbolts,  25;  imprisoned 
beneath  the  earth,  23;  their  names, 
23 ;  war  with  Cronos. 

Cyprus,  37, 60. 

Dacia,  316. 

Dagd;i,  the  Great,  221,  223,  320. 

Danu,  323. 

Daphnephoria,  festival,  39. 

Dartmoor,  239. 

Dead,  Etruscan  fate,  127,  128;  Greek 
appearance  of ,  106  ;  hurt  the  living, 
106. 

■  De  Beneficiis,"  of  Seneca,  194, 197-199. 

Decima,  130,  144. 

Decuma,  130. 

Dea  Dia,  172. 

"  De  Divinatione,"  of  Cicero,  179. 

Delos,  24,  38. 

Delphi,  24,  38,  96,  102,  103 ;  center  of 
arts,  102. 

Delphic  Ami>hictyony,102. 

Delphic  oracles,  34,  101-103. 

Demeter,  23, 178  ,  festivals,  64  ;  goddess 
of  fertility,  64  ;  hymn  to,  65,  66  ;  of- 
ferings, 65-67  ;  taught  tillage,  64. 

Dennis,  117,  119,  124,  126,127,  130,132, 
135,  136,  138. 

"  De  Ostentis,"  of  Cicero,  132. 

"  Description  of  Greece,"  by  Pausanius, 
24. 

Diana,  119. 

Diau  Cecht,  god  of  healing,  285. 

Diarmait,  sea-god  221,  274,  275  ;  adven- 
tures with  a  Gruagach,  232-234. 

Dido,  88. 

Dii  Complices,  122. 

Dii  Cousentes,  122. 

Dii  Genitales,  128. 

Dii  Involuti,  122, 140. 

Dii  Kovensiles,  121, 122. 


IXDEX. 


151 


Diodorus  Siculus,  upon  the  Druids  of 
CJ«ul,2S>5^- 

Diogeues  Laer!ius,  25,  96.*183, 186,  304. 

MM  Casalus,  316. 

Dionyslac  festivals,  • 

Diouysus,  god  o(  wiue,  69.  120;  extent 
of  worship,  72  ,  insignia,  7i ;  intro- 
duces the  vine  into  <  i rvece,  70  ;  op- 
position, 71  ;  slain,  72 ;  symbols,  H  , 
worship,  70. 

I'KSS,  321,323. 

Idthmar,  444. 

Pi  vena,    144. 

Divination,  Etruscan,  132, 133  ;  Greek, 
100,  103  ;  Roman,  177-170. 

Divitiacus,  305. 

Doniiducus,  146. 

Domiiian,  202. 

Domitius,  146. 

K>u,  M  . 

Donegal,  261. 

Donu,  323. 

Doris,  7*. 

Dragon  Of  Britain,  217. 

Dragon  of  the  Hcs]>eridc8,  89. 

Prangcy,  4:m. 

Draupner,  366,  368. 

Druid,  etymology,  305,  306, 

Druidic  deities  represented  by  stones, 
234. 

Druidisiu,  advantages  of  the  priest- 
hood, 306  ;  cannibalism.  294;  course 
of  study,  285;  divination,  292-296, 
310,  311  ;  doctrines,  306,  307  ;  holds 
the  savin  sacred,  299 ;  human  sacri- 
fices, 292-294;  influence  on  Church 
of  England  and  Ireland,  Ut,  IK; 
malevolent  spirits  represented  on 
monuments,  324  ;  mistletoe,  sacred, 
298,  299;  mystical  learning,  286-290; 
Neo- Druidism,  286;  occult  powers, 
309,  310  ;  SHcri  flees,  292-294,  308,  309  ; 
snakes'  eggs,  300,  301 ;  sources  of 
knowledge,  216;  transmigration  of 
souls  307,  308. 

Druids,  cannibals,  294;  divination, 
292-296;  human  sacrifices,  292-294  ; 
influence,  290-294,  206,  297,  ML 

1'runiicela,  parliament  at,  284. 

Primerm-tnii,  306. 

Pry  ads,  77. 

Imlyn,  I-ake,  231. 

Dun  Inbir,273. 


Puumwii.  ISO. 

Dwarf*,  55;  character  of  the  Noras, 
410-415. 

i  •  nau,  89. 

'   I ..  loM-sfrum  M  inland,"  404. 
Ecna.  284. 

H2,  el  ttq. 
Edula,  145. 
Edward  J   brought    storm    of    Fll    to 

London,  244. 
Egil,431,  432;  heals   Hrlga    by    rubes, 

431,432. 
Egil's  Saga  432. 
Egypt,  50. 
Eikthyrner,  376. 
Eileithyia,  49. 
Eilcithyiac  festival,  50. 

Elrik.  437. 

Eistethvod.  M\M1 

Kldhrimmer,  37(°>. 
',  106. 

Eleli,229.  230. 

Elcu  I.uyddawg,  230. 

Elcusiuian  mysteries,  69  ;  meaning,  64. 

Eleusis,  64,  72,  245. 

Ella  wrestles  with  Thor,  386. 

Elunet,  254. 

Elves,  Norse;  character,  411. 

Elcvagar,  356,  S83,  388. 

Elvidncr,  hall  of  lie!,  AM,  407. 

i;m:iin.271.  • 

Eiubla,  358,360. 

Kuier,  goddess  of  dawn,  268,  260, 273, 
274. 

Empousa,  92. 

Encyclopaedia  Bri  tannics,  65. 

Enna,  64. 

Ennius,  179. 

Eds,  120. 

Epaphroditus,  202. 

Ephesus,  32. 

Ephialtes,30,  92. 

Epictetus,  191  ;  confidence  in  Ood,  203  ; 
concerning  providence,  203 ;  life,  202 ; 
no  evil  to  the  good,  205;  resignation 
to  the  will  of  Cod,  204;  teachings 
202-206;  to  stand  by  principles,  206, 
206;  supreme  happiuess  in  praising 
God,  206. 

Kpimenides,  Cretan  philosopher,  96. 

Epirus,  202. 


452 


INDEX. 


Erebus,  303. 

Erechtlieus,  89. 

Erigone,  72- 

Erinn,  219, 221, 222,  223,  264,  280. 

Erinnyes,  37  ;  called  Euineuides,  87. 

Erling,  437. 

Eryri,  229. 

Esquiline,  152. 

Esus,  described,  319,  320. 

Etain,  221. 

"  Ethiopia*/'  108. 

Ethnea,  story  of.  261-263. 

Etruria,  105, 120,  122. 

Etruscan  geuii,  128, 129. 

"  Etruscan  Inscriptions,"1   117, 120, 128. 

Etruscan  religion,  diviuities,  116;  liu 
man  sacrifices,  131  ;  priests,  130 ; 
sacrifices,  131 ;  signs,  131 ;  unseen 
world,  122,  et  seq. 

"Etruscan  Researches,"  117-119.  134. 

Etruscans,  feasts  in  tombs,  134,  135 , 
furniture  of  tombs,  136,  137  ;  offer- 
ings, 135;  origin  and  affini lies,  133; 
paintings  in  tombs,  137  :  symbolism, 
136-138  ;  tombs,  133,  et  seq. 

Eubages,  302. 

Euboea,  49, 

Eudav,  229, 

Eumaios,  83. 

Eumenides,  87, 108. 

Euripides,  71, 108, 

Euronomos,  124, 

Europa,  49. 

Eusebius,  68. 

Eutrain.  statue  at,  322. 

Euturpa,  118. 

Evreux,  241. 

Ezekiel.  355. 

Fabianus,  196 

Faereyinga  Saga,  444. 

Fairies,  Celtic,  325  character,  333, 
419-421;  described, 327,  328;  English, 
418  ;  influence  on  the  religion  of  our 
fathers.  333-335!  large  fairies,  419. 
420;  of  Isle  of  Man,  322.  323  330; 
of  Scottish  Highlands,  329,330;  once 
angels,  325. 

Fairy  legends  of  Wales,  330-331. 

"  Fairy  Mythology,"  331-333,  415,  418. 

Fill,  244. 

Farnu,  121. 

Fand,  271-274. 


Farinus,  145. 

Farrar,  200. 

Fates,  128,  129. 

Fate,  Stoic,  198,  199. 

Fath-Liag,  285. 

'  Fasti,"  the,  Ovid,  164, 169. 

Faun,  121. 

Fauna,  105. 

Faunus,  festival  to,  165. 

Februa,  168,  169. 

Feuris' wolf,  406;  bound,  407;  breaks 
every  chain,  407  ;  shall  in  the  end  de- 
vour the  sun,  423. 

Fene,  284. 

Fensal,  369. 

Frentinum,  129, 

Fergus,  219. 

Fergus  mac  JRoig,  220. 

Fessonia,  145. 

Festivals,  69,  93  ;  Agrouia,  81 ;  annual 
to  Ceres,  172 ;  Carneia,  39 ;  Daph- 
ncphoria,  39  ;  Dionysiac,  72  ;  Fiiuma- 
lia,  165;  Hyancinthia,  39;  Luperca- 
lia,  168 ;  Mercuriales,  160, 161  ;  Met- 
ageitnia.  39;  Neptunalia,  161,  162; 
Norse,  446  ;  Saturnalia,  158,  159  : 
Thargelia,  39. 

Festus,  119. 

Fetiales,  duties,  179, 180. 

Fetishism,  Celtic,  310. 

Fiac's  Fool,  277. 

Fili,  284. 

Filidecht,  285. 

Fimbul-winters,  422. 

Finn,  221,  277, 

Finn  mac  Cumaill,  232. 

Firbolgs,  217 ;  defeated,  263,  264. 

Fj  alar,  372,  373. 

Flanien,  dialas,  120,  154,  174. 

Fltuuen  Floralis,  164. 

Flauieu  Mavtialis,  154. 

Flamines  Curiales,  174. 

Flamines,  177  ;  number,  167. 

Flaminica,  169, 

"  Flateyjarbok,"  444. 

Flath-innis,  Gaelic  elysium,  282. 

Flora.  146,  164. 

Fluviona,  144. 

Folk-lore,  connection  with  religious 
beliefs,  247,248. 

Fornori,  defeated,  263,  264. 

Forculus,  145. 

Forestier,  404. 


INDEX. 


458 


Forgai: 

"  ForgaH's  tear,*'  274. 

Forsette.  394. 

Fram. 

Fratres  Arval-  • 

Frazer,  65,  176. 

Frey,  359,'369,  400,  401,43i>;  U.ar  sacri- 
fice, 401,40-2;  character,  401;  extent 
ol  worship,  401-404;  festival,  446; 
marries  Gert,  404  ;  statue,  402. 

Freyja,  goddess  of  love,  380,  400; 
character,  404, 405 ;  claims  half  ul  the 
slain  in  battle. 

'•  Freyja's  hen,"  405. 

Fri.llief.  430 

Fngg,  369, 391. 

Frnctesca,  146. 

Fulla,  369. 

Furies,  22,  81, 128.  129,  136 ;  agents  ol 
the  gods  to  punish,  94. 

Future  life,  Greek,  105, 106. 

G  a»,  22. 23.  90. 

Galar,  37. 

a.  78  ;   loved  by  Polyphemus,  79. 

Galatians,  306. 

"  Gallic  War"  of  Caesar,  292,  355. 

"  Gardens  of  Lug,"  26S,  274. 

Garni,  AH. 

Gaul,  217,  218;  gods  assimilated  to  the 
Bomau  gods,  311,  312. 

Garida,  261,262. 

Gefrjun,  399. 

General  judgment,  Norse,  426;  Giiule, 
428  ;  gods  return,  427,  428 ;  Nidhug, 
428. 

Genesis,  36. 

Gerhard,  130. 

"  Germania  "  of  Tacitus,  353,  354. 

Germans,  di rining  by  twigs,  355  ;  sa- 
cred grove,  354. 

Gerseme,  404. 

Giants,  Greek,  22  ;  conflicts  explained, 
26.27. 

(iilling  the  giant,  372. 

Gimle,  347,  359,  366. 

Ginungagnp,  356. 

Gjallerhorn.  361. 

GJol  River,  393. 

Gladsheim.SM,  876. 

Gladstone,  28,  30,  31 ,  34,' 36-38,  46,  47 
49,  52,  82-84. 

G laser,  376. 


iiltl|.ticr,407. 

iiliin.r,  the  heavenly  uauafoo,  3M. 

Guaa. 

<ioldeldeit.es,  217. 

■  Bough,"  by  Frazer,  17*. 

Gordiauus  II,  173, 
,92. 

(iorguuiau,  138. 

Gorgons,  89. 

Govannon,  257. 

Gower,  236. 

Graces,  87. 164. 

Grainne,  221. 

-  Gnuunialica  Celtic*,"  306. 

Graniiua,  316. 

Grannus  Magounos,  316. 

Greece,  the  five  great  gods,  28. 

Greek  gods,  in  poetry  and  tragedy, 
16-18 ;  of  lower  rank,  88. 

Greek  mysteries,  attractiveness,  99; 
iritiiisins.  6*J;  fur  the  wise  few,  69; 
lost  their  original  purity,  69 ;  sources 
ol  information,  68 ;  stages  of  progresi 
in  initiations,  68;  symbolism,  95; 
teaching  of  the  greater  mysteries, 
67-69 ;  value,  68. 

Greek  religion,  divination,  100-103, 
foreign  influence,  83,  84 ;  gods  re- 
sponsible for  .sin,  103,  104 ;  no  medi- 
ator required,  98;  ordeals,  108; 
prayers  92,93;  priesthood,  99,  100; 
propitiates  the  shades  of  the  dead, 
106;  sacrifices,  93;  s|>ecial  emer- 
gences, 93 ;  worship  the  personal 
right  of  every  freeman,  98. 

••  Glimmer's  Lay,"  358. 

Grimm,  Jacob,  341. 

Grettir,  433. 

Gretti's  Saga,  433. 

Grid,  the  giantess,  397. 

Groa,  383. 

Grote,  72. 

Grotto  del  Tifone,  125. 

Grotto  Volunna,  135. 

Groves,  Druidic,  303, 304. 

Gungner,  368. 

Gunlad,  374. 

Gwales,  281. 

Gwydlon,  257,  259,  260,  264;  culture- 
hero,  249;  master  in  magic,  257-260; 
obtains  treasures  for  man,  250,  256 ; 
story,  249,  250. 

Gwydno,  276. 


454 


INDEX. 


Gwynvyd,  288. 

Gwyon  the  Little,  276,  277. 

Gyes,  22. 

Gylfe,  399, 

Gymer,404. 

Gymnosophistre,  305. 

Hadks,  12,  23,  64,  122,  125,  126 ;  char- 
acter, 73,  74, 105. 

Hagno,  24. 

Hakon,  his  battle,  436. 

Hamadryads,  77,80,81. 

"  Happy  Isle,"  282. 

Harald  Fairhair,  402. 

Harlech-,  281. 

Harpies,  89. 

Hayniau,46. 

Hea,  36. 

Hebe,  87;  her  beauty,  89;  charac- 
ter, 89. 

Hecatsea,  74 

Heeataeus,  297. 

Hecate,  goddess  of  magic,  74;  charac- 
ter and  worship,  74;  offerings,  74; 
representation,  74. 

"  Hecuba,"  108. 

Heidrun,  376. 

Heimdal,  395,  424. 

Hel,  347,  366,  392,  424,  427 ;  dog  of,  391, 
hall  of,  406. 

Helga,  healed  by  Eunes,  431,  432. 

Helicon,  278. 

Heliodorus,  108. 

Helios,  38. 

Helvia,  187. 

Hengist,  247. 

Hephaestus,  23,  54,  88,  119,  121 ;  artifi- 
cer of  the  gods,  54;  cast  out  of 
heaven,  54,  55;  description,  55,  56; 
forged  the  thunderbolts  of  Zeus,  54  ; 
marries  Aphrodite,  56;  images  on 
hearths  at  Athens,  56 ;  receives  no 
worship,  56 ;  representation  in 
art,  56. 

Hera,  23,  28,  49,  87,  89,  117 ;  character 
50-52;  cow-headed  idols,  50;  defects, 
51;  lending  idea,  28;  marries  Zeus, 
49;  mythology,  52,53;  Pelasginn  or 
foreign  in  origin,  49;  prerogatives, 
51 ;  represented  at  Samos,  50  ;  repre- 
sents the  fruits  of  earth,  49 ;  sub- 
jected to  punishment  by  Zeus,  52. 

Heracles,  52,  89, 108,  312.  354. 


Heraion,  57. 

Hercules,  138,  15&,  348,  353;  receives 
tithes,  160. 

Hermes,  120,  314 ;  character,  57  ;  con  - 
nected  with  Cabin,  58;  entertained 
by  Calypso,  82;  mythological  rela 
tions,  58;  representations,  55  ;  statue 
by  Praxiteles,  57. 

Hermione,  62. 

Hermod,  367,  392. 

Hermunduri,  354. 

Herodotus,  355. 

"  Heroes  and  Hero-worship,"  340,363. 

Hertha,  352,  353. 

Hesiod,  16,  25,  78,  92. 

Hesperides,  89. 

Hestia,  23;  goddess  of  the  fireside,  62; 
character,  61,  62 ;  sacred  lire  her  sym- 
bol, 62. 

Hesus,  304,  318,  319. 

Hesychius,  17,  49, 119. 

"Hibbert  Lectures,"  219,  225,230,234, 
242,  245,  255,  268,  275,  279,  306,  317, 323. 
380,  395. 

Hibernia,  294. 

Hispania,  187. 

"  History  of  Greece,"  by  Curtius,22,  99, 
102, 103. 

"  History  of  Greece,"  by  Grote,  72. 

"  History  of  Rome,"  by  Moinmsen, 
140, 154,  160, 176. 

Hlidskjalf,  358,  402,  408. 

Hnos,  404. 

Hoder,  393,  427  ;  blind,  399 ;  slays  Bal- 
der, 392. 

Hodmimer's  forest,  426. 

Hoener  427. 

Hof  varpner,  370. 

Holne,  239. 

Holy  stones,  Druidic,  242,  243-246; 
healing  virtues,  234-236 ;  worship  for- 
bidden, 246. 

Homer,  16,  25,  36,  37,  50,  51, 54-56,  76, 
81-83, 104,  105. 

"  Homer  and  Homeric  Age,"  34 

Honer,  360. 

Horace,  191. 

Horae,  88. 

Horburg,316. 

Horta.  129,  130. 

Hosea,  355. 

"  House  of  the  Vestals,"  170. 

Hrunguer,  380-383. 


INP. 


180 


Heym,  423. 

Huge,  runs  with  Thjasse,  885-387. 

Hui;iti,  364. 

Human    sacrifices,    11,    60;      Druidtc, 

292-294;  Ureek,  230;  None,  437-442, 

444. 
Hvergelmer,  376,  428. 
Hydra. 

s,  37. 
Hvm.r.  389;  fishes  with  Thor,  S8»,  390. 
Hymns  to  Aphrodite,  79,  80;    t- 

eler,  65,  66;  to  leva,  U 
Hyperboreaus,    39;      Druidie    temple. 

297. 

Iapktus,  313. 

Icarius,  71. 

Iceland,  410;  description,  340;  temples, 

Idwi  Dactyli,  354. 

Ides,  166. 

Iduu,  396;  taken  to  Jotuuheim,  396. 

Ierna,  294. 

Iliad,  44,54-56. 

Ilissus,  S9. 

Immortality,  Socrates'   discourse,  108, 

111. 
lngce],220. 

Ingemund  Thorstensou,  MS 
Descriptions,  Celt  ie,  312,  rt  teq. 
lutereiilona,  144. 
Innus,  168. 
Ipliimedein,  30. 
Irelaud,  234,  240,  243,  240 ;  legend  of  its 

settlement,  217. 
Iris,  attendant  "t   Zens,  88. 
"  Irish  Wonders,"  328. 
Isis,  50,  83,  348 
Island  of  the  Blest,  25. 
Isle  of  Man,  279;  fairies,  322,  323,330. 
Isle  ,,f  S'in,230. 
Isocrates,    approximates     the     OoMflB 

Rule,  17. 
Isthmus  of  Corinth,  32. 
Ithaca,  82 ;  worship  in,  37,  38. 
Ithakos,  82. 
Ivadd,  401. 

ttnpto,  165. 

Jarnsaxn,  383. 
Jason,  106. 
Joannes  Lydus,  132. 
.lord,  376. 


Jotuuheim,  360, 878, 860, 363. 
Jowett,  110. 
Jugatiuus,  146. 
Juno,  117,  151. 

Juno  Mo 1 1.- 1.. 

Juno  Kegiua,  I 

Juno  Soapita,  188. 

Jupiter,  167,   177,  293,  318;    character, 

150,151;    symbols,  151  ;    temp  • 
Jupiter  ltagiiuites,31- 
Jupit.  r  Sueellus,  319. 
Jupiter  Taranus,  819. 
Juvenas,  145. 
Jurenta,  145. 

Kalends,  182,166. 

Kamil,  120. 

Karadawg,  229. 

Keightley,  331-333,  415,  418. 

Kerridwin.  I 

K.  ysler,  305. 

Kj..tve  the  Uieh,  402. 

Killaraus  Mous,  234. 

Kin^usie,  243. 

I 

Klydno,  250. 

Em  Md  fairies,  832. 

Korrigan  fairies,  3:11,  332. 

K rat os.  88.  * 

Kulnu,  It  hi  van  god  of  the  grare,  125, 

Kvaser,  372,  408. 

Kyuon,  story, 250-255. 

Kyuyr,  250. 

Labraid,  272. 

I^uturnus,  14C. 

Lalan,  121. 

LnMagliana,  172. 

Ijimia, '.'-'. 

Laminas  fairs,  meaning,  263,  264. 

Uimpriilius,  305. 

Lampsacus,  80. 

Lanciaiil,  170, 172, 173. 

Laiiuvium,  152. 

Lar,  1ST.  . 

I -a  ran.  121*. 

Lares,  128,  134, 166, 167. 

Lares  Pul.liei,  167. 

Larfamiliuris,  128,167. 

Larr«,  128,  167. 

ijwa,  m. 

Lust  days,  Norse,  422,  et  nq. 
Latons,lI7. 


456 


INDEX. 


Lear,  King,  of  Shakspeare,  280. 

Lederun,  444. 

Leninos,  23,  55. 

Lemuralia,  181. 

Lemures,  128, 167. 

Lenormant,  26,  27. 

Leprechauns,  328-330. 

Lerad,  376. 

Lernsan  Hydra,  89. 

Levana,  145. 

Liban,  271. 

Liber,  158. 

Lif,  426,  428. 

Life,  Aryan  idea,  49. 

Lifthraser,  426,  428. 

Limentinus,  145. 

Lipara  Islands,  23. 

Lir,  279 ;  original  of  Sbakspeare's  Lear. 
280. 

•  Little  People,"  325,  41G,  417. 

"  Lives  and  Opinions  of  Eminent  Phi- 
losophers," 25.  96,  183,  184,  305. 

Livy,  130;  on  Etruscan  religion,  106. 

Llawgyffes  Lew,  Btory,  258-261. 

Lieu,  original  name  of  Druidic  sun- 
god,  260. 

Llow,  264. 

"  Lluth  of  the  silver  hand,"  218. 

Loentius,  145. 

Loder,  360. 

Loeg,  272. 

Lofn,  370. 

Loge,  eats  a  race  with  Loke,  385,  388. 

Logan,  240,  242,  282,  306. 

Loire,  294. 

Loke,  367,  369,  393,  395,  424 ;  abuses  the 
gods,  408;  brings  peril  to  the  gods, 
406;  destruction  of  his  children  de- 
creed by  tbe  gods,  406;  his  three 
children,  406;  journeys  with  Thor, 
383-388;  learns  the  secret  connected 
with  the  invulnerability  of  Balder, 
392;  not  always  evil,  406;  procures 
the  golden  apples,  396,  397 ;  pursued 
by  the  gods,  408,  409;  returns  the 
golden  apples,  397 ;  seeks  golden  hair 
for  Sif,  368,  369 ;  the  bane  of  Balder, 
392;  the  gods  fish  for  Loke,  409; 
tortured  by  the  gods,  409,  410;  wres- 
tles with  Loge  at  eating,  385-387. 

Losna,  119. 

Loundres,  237. 

Lower  Ormond,  278. 


Luachair,  273. 

Lucan,  318,  319 ;  upon  the  Druids  and 

their  groves,  302-304. 
Luceres,  177. 
Lueiiin,  92;    on    Hercules    or   Ogmos, 

312-316. 
Lutina,  119,144,  152. 
Ludgate  Hill,  218. 
Lug,  249,  266-274;    culture    prevailed, 

264;     feast   instituted,    263;    story, 

261-263. 
Lugnassad,  263. 
Lugoves,  their  temple,  264. 
Luna,  119,  354. 
Lunet,  255. 
Lupercalia,  168. 
Luperci,  168, 169. 
Lycurgus:  60.  71. 
Lydney,  218. 

Mac  KJneely,  261,  262. 

Mac  Oc,  221,  249. 

Macpherson,  282. 

Mac  Samthninn,  261. 

Maen  Kitti,  236. 

Magi,  304. 

Magic,  310;  broth,  276,  277;  cauldron 
of  poetry  and  science,  273;  influ- 
ence, 16. 

Mngne,  383,  427. 

Magnetes,  37. 

MagSlecht,  242. 

Maia,  83. 

Mallet,  429,  435,  441,  445,  446. 

Mamurius  Vetnrius,  154. 

Manannan.god  of  the  sea,  297;  Welsh 
Manawyddan,  280. 

Manannan  mac  Lir,  272-274. 

Manawyddan,  280. 

Manes,  128, 134. 

Mania,  122, 131. 

Mitntic  art,  100;  in  Apollo-worship, 
100-103. 

Manturnse,  146. 

M:intus,  122,  131. 

Mapones,  316. 

Marcus  Aniueus  Seneca,  187. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  character,  207,  210; 
selections,  208-210. 

Marine  deities  in  Etruria,  126, 127. 

Marpessa,  48. 

Mars,  167,  168,  218,  219,  293,  317,  348, 
353;    central  object  of  worship,  153; 


1XDEX. 


Iff! 


character,  154 ;  gate  name  to  March, 
IM 

Marseilles,  Druid  grore  near,  318. 
Marspiu-r,  154. 
Haajas,  :t.i. 

Math..Iweh,  280;  adrent urea, 280, 281. 

Math  tl  ,259. 

Mntut.i 

Maun,  167, 168. 

Maxen,  his  dream,  223-230. 

Maxiraus  Tyrius,  108. 

McAnally,  828. 

Mean,  127. 

Meath,  263. 

Medb. 

Medea,  106. 

"Meditations"    of    Marcus    Aurelius, 

-'10. 
Meging-jarder,  378. 
Mela,  331. 

"  Memorabilia"  of  Xenophon,  18. 
Mfiia-.-,  :wr,. 
M.tirva,  118. 
M.n*.  146. 
M.miw,  286. 
Meiiwi 
Mercury,  120,    124,    160,   161,   298,  848, 

353. 
Manorial  Artatus— Ogmios,  the  Gallic 

name,  312 
Merlin,  234,  249. 
Merlin  Kmrys,  230. 
Mermaid,  415. 
Merman,  415. 
Merodach,  36. 
Mersburg,  444. 
Mesgregra,  220. 
Metamorphoses,  79,  86. 
M.-ti-S  4-'. 

Metz,  Gaulish  figure  at,  324. 

.39. 
Mider,  221. 
Midgard,  360. 
Midgard-serpent,    388;    cast    into    the 

sea,  406 ;   caught  by  Thor,  389,  390 ; 

loose  in  the  last  days,  -TJ.'t. 
Midluachuir,  278, 
Milesians,  JIT. 
Mil.t'i- 
M  i  1 1  •  ■  r 

Minor*  fountain,  279,361,366,  424. 
Min.rva,  i:.l,  2".«,  32n  ;    chara.i. 

festival,  153. 


"  Minor  Dialogue*"  of  Seneca.  190,  192. 

194-197.  199. 
MinoUur.  89. 
Mlnvas,  71. 

Mistletoe,  sacred  in  I»ruldiam,  298, 299 
Mjuluer,  368,378. 

Modgud,  398. 

Mommsen,  138,  139,  154, 180,  179. 

Mona,  228. 

Moongarm,  swallows  the  moon,  428. 

Mordav 

M<.rlaix,  fairies  under  its  castle,  SSS. 

Mi. mi. ilea,  92. 

Mother  goddess,  Celtic,  worshiped,  828. 

324. 
Mount  Etna,  23. 
Mount  Hamus,  89. 
Mount  Lycicus,24. 
M.  Robt.  Mowat,  319. 
Mulltr,  Mux,  18. 
Muuin,  364. 
Minister,  223. 
Munthukh,  120, 121. 
Murcia,  145. 
Murilioiiin.-,  JiW,  270. 
Mupel,  424. 

Muses,  38, 103 ;  daughters  of  Zeus,  77. 
Museum  of  Vienne,  Celtic  altar,  324. 
Muspelheira,356,  897,  359. 
Mycale,  82 
My  reus,  50 
'   M\ . .  use  and  Tiryn- 
Mythology,   Celtic,  216;    Norse  of   the 

Creation,  356,  el  $eq. 

Naahtkaki*.  428;  described,  366. 

Naenia,  146. 

Naglfar,  ship  made  of  the  nails  of  the 

dead,  423. 
Naharvali,  852. 
Naiads,  76,  77. 
Namsn,  224. 
Name  of  God,  too  sacred  to  pronounce, 

'.•■-.,  ML 
Nanna,  goddess  of  flowers,  892,  894. 
Nare,  409. 

■  Natural  History  "   of  Pliny,  298401. 
Nausithoos,  30. 
N..  lit,  218. 
Necks,  415,  416. 
Neda,  24. 
Neleus,  30. 


458 


INDEX. 


Nemean  Lion,  89. 

Nemedians,  217. 

Nemetona,  318. 

Semon,  318. 

NepUiualls,  161. 

Neptune,  218,  219. 

Neptuuus,  161,162. 

Nereids,  32. 

Nereus,  78 ;  character,  76  ;  old  god  of 
the  sea,  30. 

Nero,  188, 190,  202  ;  condemned  Seneca 
to  death,  188. 

Nestor,  315. 

Net,  318. 

Nethuns,  119,  161. 

New  Castle,  324. 

Nicopolis,  202. 

Nidhug,  361,363. 

Niebelungen-lied,  341. 

Niever,  322. 

Ninheim,  347,  356,  376,  391. 

Nimble,  the  horse,  393. 

"Nineteenth  Century,  The,''  28,30,36, 
38,  46,  49. 

Nisses,  fairies,  415. 

Njord,  359,  397  ;  diameter,  400  ;  given 
to  the  Asas  in  exchange  for  Hoener, 
400. 

Noatun,  abode  of  Njord,  400. 

Nodatus,  146. 

Nodeus,  218. 

Nona,  144. 

Nones,  166. 

Norns,  the  three,  362. 

"  Norse  Mythology,"  358,  363,  367,  388, 
406,  407,  416,  425. 

Norse  Religion,  account  of  Tacitus,  347; 
auguries,  349,  350 ;  character,  340, 
343;  decay,  340,  341;  early  had  no 
idols,  430;  fairies  and  elves,  428; 
former  extent,  340;  great  gods,  369; 
how  much  we  owe  to  it,  346;  im- 
portance, 339 ;  monotheistic  and  pol- 
ytheistic, 356;  myths  of  creation, 
356,  et  seq. ;  oracles,  430;  ordeals, 
429,  430;  purest  remains  found  in 
Iceland,  341,  342 ;  runes,  431,  et  seq.  ; 
sacrifices,  436;  sorcery  and  divina- 
tion, 428, 429 ;  teachings,  343 ;  temple, 
435,  436;  trinity,  359. 

"Northern  Antiquities,''  429,435,  441, 
445,  446. 

Nortia,  129, 130. 


Norway,  410. 

Nuada,  217;  silver  hand,  218. 

Numa,  165, 177. 

Numeria,  145. 

Nymphs,  association  with  Hermes,  82, 

83;  grove  described,  79,  80;    Ithacan, 

82;  loves,  86;  worship,  77. 

Oceanidks,  77 ;  daughters  of  Ocean 
and  Tethys,  78;  numl>er,  78;  pray 
for  Prometheus,  78. 

O'Curry,  273,  278. 

Oder,  404. 

Odin,  god  of  war,  279,  353, 354,  357,  358, 
364,  439,  440;  adventures  with  the 
giant  Hrungner,  380-383 ;  adventures 
with  the  giant  Skrymer,  383-383 ;  ap- 
pearance, 364;  blesses  his  subjects, 
367;  discovers  runes,  375;  festivals, 
446;  his  hall,  366,  376;  journey  to 
Jotunheim,  373  ;  journey  with  Loke, 
383-388;  journey  with  Loke  and 
Hoener,  396 ;  lost  one  eye,  361 ; 
names,  364;  receives  a  stone  in  his 
forehead,  380 ;  receives  the  gift  of 
poetry,  372-375  ;  stone  removed  from 
his  forehead,  383 ;  visits  Niflheim, 
391 ;  wives,  369. 

Odroerer,  374. 

Odysseus,  31,  42,  43,  46,  81,  82. 

Ogam,  316. 

Ogma,  316. 

Ogmios,  312. 

Olaf  Tryggvason,  402,  443. 

Olans,  430. 

Ollamh,  284,  285. 

Olympus,  24. 

Olympia,  57,  62. 

Ops,  158 ;  sanctuary,  159. 

Oracles,  101-103;  centers  of  culture, 
101  ;  colonies  under  protection  of 
Apollo,  102  ;  foster  literature,  102. 

Orchomenus,  seat  of  worship  of  the 
Chart  tes,  87. 

Ordeal,  108. 

Oreads,  77. 

Oreithyia,  89. 

Orestes,  60. 

"  Oriental  Records  Monumental,"  15. 

Origin  of  things,  Greek,  22. 

Orpheus,  121. 

Ortygia,  84,  86. 

Orvandel  the  Wise,  383. 


INDI  \. 


m 


Ot©*,30. 

iui,l.;s.  164,  169. 
<>«fi.,2S0  238,255. 

oxford,  an. 

1 'A  I. LAS,  40. 

Pan,  39,  58.  72. 
PansHiua,  187. 
Pantheism,  13,  15;   among  the  DMMh 

806 
Paphoa,  61. 

Paria,  figure  of  Cernunnos,  S20,  821. 
Partula,  144. 
Parnassus,  72. 
Patelana,  146. 
Patina,  144. 
Paul,  12,  95, 98. 
Pauli,  130. 

Pauaaniua,  24,  66,  67,  98. 
PaTentia,  145. 
Parent!  na,  145. 
Pelasgians,     worship     the     Supreme 

God,  11. 
Peliaa,  30. 
Pellouia,  145. 
Peloponnesus,  84. 
Penardd,  285. 
Pencrik,  243. 
Pen  Crug,  243. 
Penelope,  58. 
Penkridge,  243. 
Pennocrucium,  243. 
Peraebius,  80. 
Peragenor,  145. 
Perfica,  146. 
Persephone,   12,  87;    borne  away   by 

Hades,  64. 
Perthshire,  238,  240. 
Pertunda,  146. 

Petronius,  147  ;  suicide,  190,  191. 
Pharc,  24. 

"  Pbarsalia  "  of  Lucan,  804. 
PhigalU.  67. 
Philostratus,  98. 
Phiueus,  80. 
Phliua,  89/ 
Phipeke,  125. 
Phoebus.  38,  219. 
Phoenicia,  60. 

'•  Phoenician  Affinities  of  Ithaca,"  83. 
Phoecus,  30. 
Phrygia,  117,  354. 


Phulans,  190. 

Phuphlana,  119. 

Piet,  306. 

Pindar,  16,  38. 

Piso,  in. 

Pixies.  418. 

Plato,  12, 15, 108. 

Pliny.  :>ruidiam, : 

Plutarch.  25.  58,  ISO. 

l'lut...  12,  73, 106,  HI,  SOS,  323. 

Pollux,  318,  353,384. 

Polyphemus,  SO;  praise*  Calatra,  79. 

Polytheism,  Hellenic,  37. 

Pompon  I  us  Mela,  230;  on  Druidhuu, 
•Jft 

Pomona,  163. 

Pontifex  controls  priests,  176, 177. 

Poutlfex  Maximua,  176, 177. 

Pookas,  328. 

Popluna,  120. 

Populonla,  120. 

Post*  Capons,  161. 

Port  units,  162. 

Poslvertn,  144. 

Poseidon,  god  of  the  sea.  28-30,  76,  S3. 
162 ;  n  foreign  god,  31  ,  character 
28-31 ;  claims  same  rank  with  Zeus, 
SO;  festival  at  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 
32;  human  sacrifices.  81, 32:  in  work* 
of  art,  32;  pine  sacred  to  him,  32. 
related  also  to  the  land,  30.  31 ;  tern 
plo  at  Mycale,  32;  women,  30;  wor- 
ship, 31. 

Prsneste,  119. 

Prtestllia,  146. 

Praxiteles,  57. 

I'rema,  146. 

Priam,  44. 

Priapus,  146. 

"  PrimitiTe  Culture,"  810. 

Priesthood,  Greek,  rise  and  influence, 
99,  100;  Roman,  1G7-176. 

Prisons  Helvidlus,  205. 

"  Prometheus,"  78. 

Prophetic  cares,  70. 

Prophetic  springs,  70. 

Proserpina,  147. 

Proserpine,  73,  87,  296. 

Protecting  genius,  Etruscan,  128. 

Proteus,  character.  76. 

Pythagoras,  302 ;  condemns  lioiuer  and 
Hesiod.  25. 


460 


INDEX. 


"  Questiones  Roman.*''  of  Plutarch. 

130. 
Quies,  145. 
Quirinus,  155, 167,  168. 

Ragnakok,  366,  422,  et  seq. 

Ran,  wife  of  M%z\\  399. 

Ratatosk,  the  squirrel,  362. 

Rate,  374. 

Rawlinson,  34,  53,  56,  61,  116, 120, 124, 
132,  355. 

Rhadaruauthus,  25. 

Rhea,  22,  23. 

Rhea's  cave,  24. 

Rheinis'  monument,  321-323. 

Rhodes,  38. 

Rhcecus,  80. 

Rhone,  318. 

Rhys,  219,  225,  230, 234,  242,  245, 263,  268, 
275,  306,  312,  317,  323,  380,  395. 

Religion,  its  study,  215. 

Religiou  of  the  common  people,  15,  16. 

Religion  of  the  Etruscans,  115. 

"Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,''  34, 
53,  56,  61,  116,  120, 124,  132. 

Rig,  395. 

Rind,  369,  371. 

Ringhorn,  392. 

Roman  religion,  character,  143 ;  deifi- 
cation of  the  emperor,  148  ;  efforts  to 
uphold  the  religion,  148 ;  foreign  el- 
ement, 149;  gods  invited  to  Rome, 
148,  149;  laws  against  foreign  gods, 
148;  number  of  divinities,  144-148; 
survivals,  143;  tutelary  spirits,  144. 

Roskva,  384. 

Rubigus,  146. 

Riigen,  411. 

Rumina,  144. 

Runcina,  146. 

Runes  for  divination,  431,  et  seq. 

Rusina,  146. 

Rusor,  146. 

Sacked  fibe,  Beltane,  237 ;  bonfires, 
237 ;  ceremonies  in  Scotland,  240 ; 
Cornwall,  240;  festivities  in  England, 
239,  240;  festivities  in  Ireland,  240; 
festivities  in  Scotland.  338, 239 ;  High- 
landers walk  around  their  fields  with 
flame,  240. 

Sacred  fire,  Druidic,  237;  attended  by 
St.  Brigit,  237. 


Sacred  fountains,  230-234, 252. 

Sacred  fish,  278,  279. 

Sacred  trees,  278,  279. 

Sacred  wells,  278,  279;  Cornwall,  240 
241 ;  cures  at,  240. 

Sacrifice,  Druidic,  292-294. 

Sacrifice,  Etruscan,  131. 

Sacrifice,  Roman,  daily,  166. 

Sacrifices  express  community  of  life 
with  gods,  98;  human,  11,181;  hu- 
man sacrifice  is  guest  of  the  gods, 
99 ;  represents  corn-spirits,  97 ;  sur- 
vivals of  human,  168;  to  Ceres,  172 
to  unknown  gods,  95,  96. 

Sadales  Titii,  174. 

Saehrinimer,  376. 

Ssemund  the   Wise,  342. 

Saga,  375. 

Sai,  284,  285. 

Saint  Brigit  attends  the  sacred  fires, 
237. 

Saint  David,  236. 

Saint  Germain,  323. 

Saint  Patrick,  236,  242. 

Salii,  154,  168. 

Salmon  of  knowledge,  277. 

Sal  us,  129. 

Sainos,  50. 

Saniothrace,74. 

Samothracian,  67. 

Sanctuaries,  Greek,  depositories  of 
money,  102. 

Saturnalia,  158, 159, 166. 

Saturnus,  158 ;  character,  158,  159. 

Satyrs,  72. 

Saxo  the  Grammarian,  430. 

Sayce,  36. 

Scapegoat,  96. 

Schliemaun,  50. 

Schorie,  30,  83. 

''  Science  of  Language,''  18. 

Scone,  244. 

Scordisci.  355. 

"  Scottish  Gael,"  the  of  Logan,  240, 242, 
282,306. 

Scottish  Highland  fairies,  329,  330. 

Scythians,  355. 

"  Seekers  after  God,"  200. 

Segetia,  146. 

Seia,  146. 

Selene,  38. 

Semele.  69. 

Semnones,  350,  351. 


1XDEX. 


461 


Seneca,  190, 193, 194-202 ;  banished,  188 ; 

life,  187-189;    opeus   bis  own   veins, 

188;  recalled  from  banishment,  188 ; 

recommends  suicide,  MB;  sins  of  bis 

age,  188, 189;  take*  public  oft. 

188;     teachings,    190-202;     tutor    tu 
writings   resemble  the  S  rij.- 

t  u  res,  200,  201. 
145. 
Sentitms,  144. 
Sexapis,  316. 
Serena,  170. 
S-rvius,  120.  132. 
Seserymiier.  404. 

.;i    exploits,    266,    267;    named 

CiKhulain,  268. 
Sethlaus.  119. 
Severn.  218. 
Shades,  propitiation  of.  106. 

I*>»re,  362;  about  fairies,  418. 
Shannon,  279. 
Shetland.  410. 
Sibylline  books,  161.  180. 
Sicily,  64. 
Sif,  367,  380. 
Sigmond,  367,  442,  443. 
Sigyn,409. 
Sileni,  58 
Silenus,  72. 
-  218 
Silvauus.god  of  woods  and  boundaries, 

144.  163,319. 
Simmias,  109. 
Simonides,  105. 
Sin  among  Greeks,  94,  103,  104 ;  their 

pardon,     94,    96;     among     Romans 

181. 
Sinann,  279. 
Badn,  368. 

Sintiaus,  55. 

Siftia.  121. 

Zinnia,  goddess.  316  ;  represented,  317. 

(71. 
Skade.  397.  400.  409. 

282. 
skhibladner,  ship  of  Frey,  368.  401. 
Skirner.  404. 
Skrymer    adventure   with    Tbor,   384, 

385. 
tUtpmm    "".4.  380.391. 
Snorp 

Snorri  Sturleson,  342. 
Snotra,  371. 


Snowdon,  228,  229,  231. 

Socrates,  18  ;  paaaagea  from  Plato,  108- 

111. 

les.  16,104,108. 

Sparta.  39,  87. 

Bftm  >-r,  240. 

Spiuien- 

8uUlinus.  MR, 

Stntina,  144. 

- 

Stliuula,  146. 

Stoicism :  all  errors  are  equal,  186 ; 
beauty.  184;  belief  in  one  n-l.  186; 
brave  for  virtue.  195;  debt  of  grati- 
tude to  the  goda.  194  ;  UMl  immor- 
tal. 212 ;  defects  of  the  system  210- 
212;  divination.  1*6:  f.ite,  1!W.  199; 
founded  by  Zeus  183  ;  free  will,  199  ; 
hasno  feeling  IM.1M  h.-ly  thoughts, 
;.|e:il  impossible,  21 1  :  morality, 
IfS;  no  repentance  avails  212:  BO( 
at  hoini-  in  ■•rnece.  186;  panthe- 
ism, 186:  pleasures  unrelinble.  197; 
promptness  in  duty.  198:  reverenea 
to  the  gods,  192-194 ;  sources  of  in- 
formation, 193.  194;  teachings.  184- 
186  :  the  dead  are  safe.  199. 200 :  the 
future,  199.  200 :  the  gods  lore  men. 
193:  the  gods  send  afflictions  to  the 
good,  193:  the  good  are  nu in . .ri  >  1 . 
197:  the  soul  beyond  harm.  194,195: 
the  soul  is  all  man  possesses.  194  ;  the 
stoic  is  almost  equal  to  god,  185,  186; 
the  true  stoic  bard  to  And,  206;  the 
wise  man,  184  ;  virtue,  184. 

Stonehenge.  234.  236. 

Stone  of  Fal.244. 

Stone  worship.  24. 

Strabo,  117,  295,  306;  on  Gallic  Druids, 
293-295. 

Strenia.  1 1". 

Slromkarl.41.-.. 

BaUgw,  146. 

Suevi, 

Suicide,  rMMMMadad  M.v  Eplctetua, 
191  ;  by  Marcus  Aurellus.  191,  192: 
by  Petronius.  190. 191  ;  by  Pliny,  191 ; 

l,v  S.  in •.  :i    U 

Sulla.  177 
Smiimanus,  117. 
Sun-god.  cult.  37.  257,  rt  itq. 
Supreme  god,  worshiped  hy  the  Pelas- 
glaus,  11. 


462 


1XDEX. 


Surt,  356,  424. 
Suttung,  373-375. 
Svein,  437. 
Syria,  27. 

Tacitus,  429;  account  of  Germans, 
347-354;  on  Druidisin,  301;  "His- 
tory," 354. 

Tafnan,  353. 

Tages,  132. 

TailUin.  feast  in  honor  of,  268. 

Taliessin,  sun-god,  story,  276,  277. 

Tanaquil,  118. 

Tantalus.  99. 

Tara.  219,  242. 

Tavanis,  304.  318.  319. 

Tarquinii.  139. 

Tarlarus.  25.  90.  92.  105.  313. 

Taygetus,  72. 

Taylor.  117-120..  134. 

Tellus,  14G.  159. 

Teluino.  146. 

Ten.  130. 

Tenarus  27. 

Tentates.  304.  318. 

Terminus,  165. 

Terpauder.  16. 

Terra.  146. 

Tertullian.  147. 

Tlialna,  representation,  117, 118. 

Thana,  117.  118. 

Tbankrilus.  118. 

Thauiuasium.  24. 

Thebes,  69.71. 

Theocrilus,  92. 

"  Theogony  "  the  of  Hesiod.  78,  92. 

"  Theology  of  Greek  Poets,"  104. 

Thesan.  119.  120. 

Thesmophoria,  64,  65. 

Thespia?.  50. 

Thespians,  24. 

Thessaly.  74. 

Thetis,  56. 

Things,  Iceland,  described,  445. 

Things! ead.  445. 

Thisona  24. 

Thjasse.  382.  383.  384  396.400;  secures 
the  golden  apples  396,  397  ;  race  with 
Huge.  355,  386,  -387. 

Thok  refuses  to  weep  for  Balder,  393. 

Thondhjeiu,402. 

Thoosa,  30. 

Thor,  353,  369,  376,  380.  438,  439,  443  : 


character,  378;  contrast  with  Odin, 
379,380;  delivered  by  L'tgard  Loke, 
386-388;  duel  with  Hrunguer,  380- 
383;  fishes  with  Hymer.  389,  390: 
gets  Hymer's  kittle,  390;  hooks  the 
Midgard-serpent,  389,  390;  threat- 
ens Loke,  408;  wrestles  with  Ella. 
386. 

Thorbiand,  434. 

Thorfinn,  431.  432. 

Thorgerd  Hordabrud,  442. 

Thorgeid  Hoidatroff.  437. 

Thoigriiu  Godi,  his  temple.  438,  439. 

Thorolf  Baegifot  appears  after  death, 
433-435. 

Thrace.  53.  89,  217.  354. 

Thrankheim,  temple  oi  443  444. 

Thrudheim  378. 

Thvymheim,  400. 

Thyrsus,  71. 

Tiber,  181. 

Tien,  116. 

Tina  god  oi  the  sky,  116.  117.  122  ;  tem- 
ple in  every  city,  116  117. 

Tipanu.  121. 

Tiryns,  50. 

Titus.  177. 

Tlachtga.  275. 

Tombs  of  the  Etruscans.  133;  feasts, 
134  135;  furniture,  136,  137;  ofler- 
ings.  135  :  paintings,  137;  symbolism, 
136-138. 

Tory  Island,  261. 

Imitates,  318. 

Toutiorix,  316. 

•  Traditions  and  Hearthstone  Stories 
of  AY  est  Cornwall,''  241. 

Tree  of  Knowledge,  Celtic.  279. 

Trinacrife.  82. 

Tritons,  219. 

Trows  of  Shetland.  40 

Tuatha  I>c  I>anaun,  217,  221.244,  280. 

Tuisco 

Tukhulkha.  125. 

Turan   120. 

1  unns  120. 

Turo.  30. 

rurniukas  125. 

Tusci,  116. 

Tutilina.  146. 

Tutunus,  146. 

Tylor.  104.  310. 

Tylwyth  Teg,  330. 


INDEX. 


m 


Typhosus,  charact-  >|.ii..h, 

1>|.|i..i>,  196,136. 

..uiplt 
niciil!>  l'li-y,  4"!  ;  pledfjM  the  Krmi> 
wolf  l>y  [lltlllg  lit-  hand  in  his 
mouth,  407. 

llll  ItoKN,  105. 
Uler,  398. 

ladies  of,  265,269,  273. 
I' lyases,  105,  354. 
I'liknown  apd,  11,  '.'"■. 
■  I'nknown  <;<m!,'    the,  l>r  Hracc,  18. 
I" ptsal,  ritual,  441  ;  saint'ins,  Ho;  tem- 
pi.-, ■ 
Uranos. 
1'rd  (..unlaii. 
1'rici. 
I'sgard.  360. 

il  «.i. 
Isiie.-li,  236. 
I'tgsr.i 

l-Loke,  385-388;  deceives  Thor 
386-388;  represents  spiritual  evil 
405. 

'   264. 

Vai.a's  i'ri  it'll k<  v,356. 

Vale,  :<98,  427. 

Valeda,  348. 

Valhal,  359, 164,  866,  391 ;  situation  and 

description,  176. 
Vallonia,  146. 
Yaiiali.ini.  400. 
Van Ih,  US. 
Var,  3Ti». 
\.irr...  1  •',  167. 
Vatican u -.  I  IS. 
' 

Vl.ltoll,. 

Vinilo  uvc.  -  -in  -  Uremic,    sculptures, 

321. 
Venili 

V.  fins,  120.  146. 
\  .'iiualaiid,  440. 
Verliiuiiius,  Hit. 
Vespasian,  205,  348. 
Vesta,  170,  172;  goddess  of  the  hearth, 

156;  peuates  worshiped  in  h«r  ti-m 

■*  . 
Vestal   virgins,    156,   170;    description, 

170. 


..■|.i.Miit*tn,D,666 
t.i 
Viking   Age,      >l>e.   >>.'    436,437,436 
III 
Nil.-   357. 
Nnigoil  .117.  366. 

VirgiiiirtiMv  no. 

Virtu.-  in  Moi.  imu,  164. 
Vituiuiiuv    111. 

11''. 
YoImiiii    129. 
Yoltiiinna.  120. 
Voltiiuiiuit,  120. 
\  olupia.  146. 
\oiutina.  146. 
V.iluiniia    146. 
Voliiniiius.  146. 
Vopiscus  305. 
Vulcan.  11  '.i  354. 
Yulci   US,  119. 

Walks,  hards  of.  285,  286. 

Water  -kelpies   330. 

W, stiu. all. 

Williams  author  of  "Manillas,''  287, 
289. 

Wiltshire,  246. 

Wind  home  427. 

Wise  mini  ol  Moi<  imu.  184. 

Worship  i.n-i-k.  pwaOMtl  right  of  ev- 
ery lK-i'iiian.  98;  no  mediator  re- 
i|iur<-d  98. 

Xknoimihn,  16. 

Ydalf.k 

Vgdrasil.  MA,   424;    sy  in  I  .olu.es  what, 

V mer.  the  giant  357. 
Younger    Kdda,"   the,    347,   358,  663 

6Jt 

Zkai.and,  399 ;  bow  formed,  444. 
Zeno,  183.  186. 
Zctiodorus,  312 

s|.  W,  121.  134 
came  chief,  12;  hrought  up  at  I 

■  i. in     l."      i  trtUt  "il    Kuropa, 
i'..    c>in|M-ls  his  father  to  disgorge 
:nldren  he  had  swallow. 


464 


INDEX. 


conquers  Typhoeus,  92 ;  character, 
19-22 ;  children  sacrificed  to,  230 ; 
dwells  on  mountains,  19;  epithets, 
12;  faults,  20,  21;  his  nod,  19;  in 
structed  by  nymphs,  23  ;  ioves,  20 
possible  primitive  meaning,  11 
power,  19  presides  over  the  Olym 
pian  gods,  19  ;  providential  care.  15  ; 
punishes  Hera,  52 ;  rebelled  agaiust 
his  father,  struggle  to  become  chief, 
22-24  ;   swallows  Metis,  42  ;  the  Pe- 


lasgic  differentiated,  12 ;  the  stone 
his  father  swallowed  preserved  at 
Delphi.  24  ;  thrusts  his  father  into 
Tartarus,  25 ;  victory  over  his  father's 
weakness,  50. 

Zeus  Cappotus,  24. 

Zeus  Enalios.  12. 

Zeus  Poliens,  97. 

Zeuss,  306. 

Zirna,  120. 

Zosimus,  170. 


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